Analysis of Nicotine in Archaeological Skeletons from the Early Modern Age and from the Bronze Age

In the last few years, identifications of drugs in archaeological human remains were reported several times but comments on the reliability of the data were often missing. To obtain valid data, in particular on nicotine residues in ancient bones, two skeletal series were analyzed and environmental influences on the results estimated in an exposure experiment. Bone samples from the early modern age (18th century, Goslar, Germany) and from the Bronze Age (Lichtenstein Cave, Germany) were analyzed for the tobacco alkaloid and its major metabolite, cotinine. In 22 out of 34 femur samples of the Goslar series, trace amounts of nicotine were found, but no cotinine, the major metabolite. Its finding would have proved the use of tobacco in the historic population, whereas the mere discovery of nicotine cannot discriminate between endogenous material and that resulting from a contamination during the sample treatment or museum storage. This points to the necessity of further pilot studies for long-term persistence...