The role of governance in sub-national adaptation policy implementation

The Fifth Assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's (IPCC) notes that constraints to adaptation 'are linked to governance systems and the quality of national institutions as well as limited scientific capacity and ongoing development challenges (e.g., poverty, literacy, and civil and political rights)' (Klein et al. 2014, p. 904). The literature on adaptation constraints and limits has evolved over recent years into a comprehensive body of literature that describes the technological, physical, ecological, financial, social, cultural, information and cognitive issues (Adger et al. 2009; Biesbroek et al. 2013; Klein et al. 2014; Leal Filho and Nalau 2018; Reisigner et al. 2014) that are likely to hinder adaptation efforts. In relation to institutions, the main institutional governance constraints have been identified as 'those barriers in policy processes that stagnate policy processes, which are beyond the capabilities of individuals to break through and need collective action to change them' (Biesbroek et al. 2009, p. 3).