“Do You Love China or Not?”: Late-Colonial Textbooks to Learn Mandarin through Malay

On 2 October 1913, roughly two years after the Republic of China was founded, a long letter landed on the desk of the Netherlands Indies governor-general Idenburg. In it, a senior advisor to the colonial government on Chinese affairs, William J. Oudendijk, provided detailed recommendations to improve the education of its Chinese subjects. Government-facilitated opportunities had been disappointingly inadequate, he contended, so that many families opted to send their children to schools oriented to China rather than the Netherlands. This situation was inexcusable if the Chinese were to become full participants of the Dutch Empire. Having studied in Beijing, the seasoned diplomat was furthermore unimpressed with the level of Mandarin taught in the archipelago: