Internal/external frame of reference: exploring the paradoxical relations between mathematics and self-concept across 29 countries

Students’ self-concept is an important construct in explaining achievement-related outcomes. The study examined the theoretical and methodological issues underpinning the Internal/External (I/E) frame of reference model. This model posits a paradoxical relation between “distinct” school subjects, for example, mathematics and verbal. Also, achievement in each domain is deemed to positively affect self- concept in the matching domain but negatively in the nonmatching domain. The investigation is based on 29 countries (N= 181,745) using the TIMSS–2011 data set. The data supported the assumptions associated with the I/E model. Result indicates a negative achievement effect on non-corresponding self-concepts (internal) and positive effects achievement on the corresponding self-concepts (external). The findings contribute to a better understanding of how students form self-concept across domains cross-culturally.