On the Nature of Vermin

Chapter 22 is devoted to xrafstar, the evil animals created by Ahriman in dualistic opposition to Ohrmazd’s animal creation. Like the discussion of Ohrmazd’s animal creation in chapter 13, this chapter, too, classifies Ahrimanic vermin. Reptiles—in particular serpents—insects, and mythological animals are divided into aquatic, terrestrial, and flying categories. Wolves, a separate category of evil animals, are discussed in chapter 23.