Complications

Cardiac catheterization is an invasive study that involves real risks to the patient. The risks increase with patient age and co-morbidity. Though vascular complications (particularly haematoma formation) and vasovagal reactions are more common, the risk of serious complications from diagnostic cardiac catheterization and coronary angiography remains low. This chapter covers complications that may arise, including death, myocardial infarction, pulmonary oedema, stroke, hypotension, cardiac tamponade, contrast reactions, vasovagal reactions, arrhythmias, vascular complications, limb ischaemia, coronary dissection (including left main stem dissection and iatrogenic type A aortic dissection), air embolism, coronary perforation, renal failure, contrast nephropathy, and cholesterol embolization.