The Challenge from within: EU Development Cooperation and the Rise of Illiberalism in Hungary and Poland

The paper examines how the emergence of ‘illiberal democracy’ in Hungary and Poland has impacted the behaviour of these two countries in the EU’s international development policy making processes. Adapting Hirschmann’s concepts of voice, exit and loyalty, the paper argues that three factors may have undermined the loyalty of these member states towards EU development policy, increasing the likelihood of them using more extreme forms of voice (vetoes) or even enact partial exits from the policy area. Erosion of loyalty is seen to be more likely if (1) illiberalism actually impacts bilateral development policies in the two countries; (2) they have poor track records in influencing EU development policy; and (3) alternatives to EU level action emerge. Applying this framework, a greater erosion of loyalty is expected in the case of Hungary than for Poland. Hungary’s recent actions in EU development policy are in line with the expectations from the framework: it has increasingly been using more extreme forms of voice following the 2015 refugee crisis, while Poland has been a less ‘problematic’ member state in the policy area. Hungary places a strong emphasis on ensuring that the EU separates discussions on refugees eligible for protection and economic migrants. Not all EU countries think the same in all development-related topics, which became evident during the elaboration of the New European Consensus, the backbone of the EU’s international development cooperation policy. While all members supported the goals of international development and criteria aimed at increasing effectiveness, approaches to migration divided the member states. While finalizing the document, Hungary was unable to accept any references to the positive impacts of migration on destination countries.