And then there were none: a stall-free real-time garbage collector for reconfigurable hardware

Programmers are turning to radical architectures such as reconfigurable hardware (FPGAs) to achieve performance. But such systems, programmed at a very low level in languages with impoverished abstractions, are orders of magnitude more complex to use than conventional CPUs. The continued exponential increase in transistors, combined with the desire to implement ever more sophisticated algorithms, makes it imperative that such systems be programmed at much higher levels of abstraction. One of the fundamental high-level language features is automatic memory management in the form of garbage collection. We present the first implementation of a complete garbage collector in hardware (as opposed to previous "hardware-assist" techniques), using an FPGA and its on-chip memory. Using a completely concurrent snapshot algorithm, it provides single-cycle access to the heap, and never stalls the mutator for even a single cycle, achieving a deterministic mutator utilization (MMU) of 100%. We have synthesized the collector to hardware and show that it never consumes more than 1% of the logic resources of a high-end FPGA. For comparison we also implemented explicit (malloc/free) memory management, and show that real-time collection is about 4% to 17% slower than malloc, with comparable energy consumption. Surprisingly, in hardware real-time collection is superior to stop-the-world collection on every performance axis, and even for stressful micro-benchmarks can achieve 100% MMU with heaps as small as 1.01 to 1.4 times the absolute minimum.