Picturing the Enslaved Christ: Philippians 2:6–8, Alexamenos, and a Mockery of Masculinity

Abstract

Abstract In the context of Roman masculine ideals, characterised by mastery over self and others, crucifixion proved a conundrum for early Christians who understood Christ as the exemplary human, or Man. Christian writers may have crafted apologia that recast crucifixion as a masculine act of endurance leading ultimately to glory, as in the so-called Christ hymn of Philippians 2. Yet, visualisation of the crucifixion confronted Christians with the problem that Christ might be viewed, literally, as unmanly, non-ideal. This article elaborates angst over shoring up Christ’s masculinity by juxtaposing early Christian interpretations of the Christ hymn, in particular its image of Christ in the form of a slave, and the Alexamenos graffito. Christ’s enslaved form, marked in the Roman world as crucifiable, was re-presented by writers such as Clement of Alexandria and Tertullian as a model of self-control, mastering and purging slavishness. In contrast, the Alexamenos graffito, etched within a context of enslavement, put the crucified Christ on full display, complete with a donkey head and its attendant associations with both slavery and the mockery of philosophical figures. Instead of taking the graffito to represent only the ridicule of Christ, or Christians generally, this essay takes seriously its satirical resonances, making a mockery of masculine ideals in ways that may have suggested solidarity with the enslaved. The article thus underscores early Christian anxiety over Christ’s masculinity, potential alternative responses among the enslaved, as well as new possibilities for making sense of the Alexamenos graffito within its context.