Sufis or Demons: Looking at the Social Context of Siyah Qalam’s Paintings

Abstract

The paintings of demons attributed to Muhammad Siyah Qalam, which are primarily in album H. 2153 in the Topkapi Palace Museum, Istanbul, have been the centre of debate for many years. Basic questions are asked concerning their provenance. Demons performing human actions have raised several problems of interpretation and form the analytical focus of this article. Searching a certain historical period, the article seeks a socio-political reality that can be connected with these paintings. Iconographic elements and authentic Chinese paintings known to be sources of inspiration provide the possibility of discussing the Aq Qoyunlu era in the late fifteenth century as the social context, a time when the rising power of Sufism caused resentment in the court. Notes regarding Sufis written in the official chronicle during the reign of Yaqub Aq Qoyunlu, Tārikh-e-ĀlamĀrāy-e-Amini, relate to certain of the paintings and have not been mentioned prior to this article.