Macrofungal pigments as sustainable food and nutraceutical ingredients: chemical diversity, biosynthesis, functionality, and product development.

Abstract

Pigments are widely used in food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries, but concerns over the toxicity, environmental persistence, and ecological risks of synthetic dyes have increased demand for safe and sustainable natural alternatives. Macrofungi are promising pigment sources because of their species diversity, distinctive secondary metabolism, and potential for controlled cultivation or fermentation. Their pigments include carotenoids, quinones, melanins, and polyphenolic compounds, many of which have been associated with antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer-related activities. Compared with many plant-derived pigments, macrofungal pigments may reduce dependence on seasonal and geographical factors and support standardized production. However, practical application remains constrained by low or unstable yields, pigment degradation, incomplete structural characterization, limited validation in real food matrices, and insufficient safety and quality specifications. This review summarizes the chemical classes, biosynthetic features, structure-function relationships, extraction and stabilization strategies, biological activities, and food applications of macrofungal pigments. More importantly, this review outlines an application-oriented evaluation framework that links pigment identity, ingredient form, matrix compatibility, bioaccessibility, safety assessment, quality specifications, and intended product use, providing a critical basis for transforming macrofungal pigments from colored extracts into defined food and nutraceutical ingredients.