iOrnithology: a review of the use of web-sourced photographs and videos in ornithological research

Abstract

The internet hosts vast quantities of digital media across webpages, repositories and social media platforms, providing unprecedented opportunities for ecological research. The use of web-sourced media (photographs and videos) in ornithology is rapidly expanding, forming part of the emerging field of iOrnithology, which applies internet-derived data to the study of birds. In this context, birds are particularly well suited to photographic and video-based studies due to their visibility, popularity and distinctive appearances. However, a comprehensive synthesis of this research is currently lacking. Here, we reviewed the peer-reviewed literature and extracted data from 64 studies published between 2015 and 2024 that used web-sourced media to study birds. We quantified research topics, media types, data sources, spatial scales and taxonomic coverage. Eight primary research topics were identified: moult and plumage patterns, avian distributions, behaviour, diets, species interactions, threats to birds, habitat use and lateralization—asymmetry of the brain and associated physiological behaviours. Photographs were used in most studies, with fewer using videos or both media types. Studies of moult and plumage patterns, as well as avian distributions, primarily relied on photographs, whereas behaviour studies more often used videos. Most studies were conducted at national and continental scales, with relatively few at local or regional scales. Spatial scale varied significantly among research topics, with studies of plumage and threats being conducted at broader scales relative to behavioural studies. In total, 1506 bird species were studied across 33 orders. By number of species, Passeriformes were the most studied order, representing more than half (52%, n = 785) of all studied species. When compared with the number of described bird species per order, among those with at least five species studied, Ciconiiformes were the most well represented order (95% coverage), followed by Gaviiformes (60%), Podicipediformes (44%), Pelecaniformes (36%) and Suliformes (35%). These studies demonstrate that web-sourced media can support a wide range of ornithological research that would often be difficult or resource-intensive to achieve using traditional field-based approaches. As digital media archives continue to grow and analytical tools improve, this approach is likely to expand further. Future developments within iOrnithology may include greater applications in areas such as invasive species, disease surveillance, and demography, and the integration of machine learning and artificial intelligence to analyse large volumes of media. Together, these developments highlight the growing value of web-sourced media as a powerful addition to the ornithologist's toolkit for studying the ecology, biology and conservation of birds.