Transition dynamics of external and internal attention across on-task and off-task states

Abstract

Attention can be flexibly directed to different sources of information, which gives rise to distinct attentional states and frequent transitions between them. However, a comprehensive theoretical integration of attentional states within a unified transition space has been lacking. In this Perspective, we propose mapping attentional states along two orthogonal axes: a direction (external versus internal) axis and a goal-relevance (on-task versus off-task) axis. We envision three principles of the transition dynamics between states. First, an internal bias pulls attention towards internally generated or previously encoded information. Second, the subjective goal value of the current state is compared with the opportunity cost of not engaging in other states. Finally, in an intermediate off-focus state, the focus of attention is temporarily released to facilitate spontaneous transitions. Neuromodulatory influences — specifically, cholinergic for transitions along the direction axis and noradrenergic for transitions along the goal-relevance axis — refine the framework by restricting the transition possibilities. In sum, our framework integrates cognitive-psychological and neurobiological attention research and offers a blueprint for future work. Attention can be flexibly directed to information that is on- or off-task and internal or external to the individual. In this Perspective, Verschooren and colleagues bring together behavioural and neuromodulatory evidence to propose a unified space of attentional states and transitions between them.