Why do some dinoflagellates produce toxins, whereas ciliates rarely do?

Abstract

Dinoflagellates and ciliates dominate marine microzooplankton, yet widespread toxin production is largely restricted to dinoflagellates. This perspective synthesizes evolutionary, genomic, and ecological drivers of that asymmetry with direct relevance to harmful algal events. From a molecular and biochemical point of view, dinoflagellates possess vast, repeat-rich genomes that support modular PKS/NRPS pathways yielding chemically diverse metabolites, whereas ciliates generally lack complete PKS/NRPS clusters (apart from a few predatory lineages) and instead emphasize behavioral defenses and rapid reproduction. Most confirmed toxic dinoflagellates are photosynthetic or mixotrophic; robust cases in purely heterotrophic taxa are lacking. Despite environment-dependent costs, dinoflagellate metabolites confer grazer deterrence, allelopathy, prey lysis, and potential nutrient acquisition. Socio-economically, paralytic shellfish toxins (saxitoxins) produced by Alexandrium spp., Gymnodinium catenatum, and Pyrodinium bahamense—non-PKS alkaloids associated with sxt genes—are among the most consequential. An integrated approach coupling genomics, metabolomics, targeted bioassays, and in situ observations will clarify when chemical versus behavioral strategies prevail across ocean regimes, thereby improving HAB risk assessment, monitoring, and mitigation.