Breathing inequality: unmasking Liverpool’s air pollution burden on deprived youth

Abstract

Liverpool, a city with an industrial legacy and among the most socioeconomically deprived local authorities in the UK, faces a significant health challenge: the combined impact of air pollution and deprivation on children’s respiratory health. This study deploys a dense network of 52 air quality sensors, one of the most comprehensive in the UK, to monitor particulate matter in 2023. PM2.5 levels ranged from 4.78 to 18.15 µg/m³ (median 7.15 µg/m³), and PM10 from 11.21 to 43.14 µg/m³ (median 17.30 µg/m³), frequently exceeding WHO thresholds. High concentrations were found in northern wards with high deprivation. Hospital admission rates for under-18 s ranged from 0.2 to 2%, exceeding national averages. Linear regression showed Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD) scores explained 16.1% of the variance in hospital admissions (R² = 0.1608, β = 0.023 to 0.025, p < 0.02), more than PM2.5 (6.6%) or PM10 (4.7%). Interaction terms suggested amplified pollution effects in deprived areas. Liverpool offers a valuable case study for understanding the intersection of environmental and social determinants of health as seen in many urban UK settings. Socioeconomic deprivation emerged as both a mediator, through factors like healthcare access, and a confounder in the pollution–health relationship. These findings underscore the need for targeted emission reductions and investment in disadvantaged communities. Future research with extended data could confirm these patterns and support broader policy action.