Exploring the Occurrence and Persistence of Human Papillomaviruses and Human Polyomaviruses in Water Matrices: A Critical Review

Abstract

Worldwide, oncogenic papillomaviruses (HPVs) and polyomaviruses (HPyVs) associated with human cancers are increasingly detected in municipal wastewater and other water environments. Significantly, the environmental strains have been phylogenetically linked to high-risk clinical strains in different studies. While these viruses are known to cause severe diseases such as intestinal and kidney tumors, lymphoma, and carcinomas affecting the colon, cervix, and prostate, the understanding of their role in contaminated water environments is greatly lacking. Indeed, both the HPVs and HPyVs are not typical waterborne pathogens; however, the potential for waterborne transmission has been suggested several times due to their environmental persistence and survivability under low pH and trypsin treatments. In this article, we review evidence of HPVs and HPyVs shedding in urine and feces and address the epidemiological significance of their presence, abundance, and diversity in water and wastewater environments. Furthermore, we discuss the stability of these oncogenic viruses under different physical and chemical treatment conditions. Finally, we critically appraise the efficiency of viral removal by the current water and wastewater treatment practices and address the possibility that their environmental persistence and inefficient removal could pose a transmission risk.