Agroforestry systems as nature-based solutions for climate risk and livelihood sustainability: a case study from Bhutan

Abstract

In ecologically fragile and economically vulnerable mountain regions, agroforestry systems offer multifunctional benefits by integrating trees, crops, and livestock to enhance both climate resilience and livelihood security. This study investigates agroforestry as a nature-based solution to climate risk in Bhutan’s Chhukha District, focusing on four system types: agri-silvicultural, agri-silvipastoral, horti-silvicultural, and aqua-silvicultural. Using a mixed-methods approach, we analyze primary data from 267 farming households and 28 years of meteorological records (1996–2023). Statistical analyses reveal that agri-silvipastoral systems, practiced by 82.4% of households, generate the highest average income (USD 916.78/year), while horti-silviculture contributes the highest proportion of total household income (87.6%), despite facing market access constraints. OLS regression shows that landholding size (β = 0.297, p < 0.01) and farming experience (β = 0.198, p < 0.05) are significant predictors of agroforestry income, whereas age, education, and household size are not statistically significant. Mann–Kendall trend analysis confirms a significant rise in temperature (Z = 4.80, p < 0.001) and a marginal, non-significant decline in rainfall (Z = − 0.97, p = 0.33), aligning with local perceptions of increasing climate stress and crop vulnerability. Perception data further show that over 80% of farmers rate agroforestry as effective or highly effective for mitigating climate change, primarily by retaining soil carbon, improving microclimate stability, and enhancing year-round forage availability. Despite Bhutan’s rich tradition of indigenous agroforestry, challenges such as labor demands, pest pressures, and inadequate commercialization remain key barriers to scalability. By applying the Sustainable Livelihood Framework, this study demonstrates agroforestry’s role in strengthening natural and human capital, while exposing persistent gaps in financial and physical infrastructure. The findings highlight agroforestry’s viability as a scalable climate adaptation strategy and provide actionable policy insights for integrating indigenous knowledge with modern agroecological planning across South Asia’s mountain systems.