Tap vs Bottled: Assessing PFAS Levels and Exposure Risks in Singapore’s Drinking Water

Abstract

Globally, drinking water choices typically involve tap or bottled water, which is influenced by perceptions of quality and safety. Raw water sources are generally considered unsafe due to potential diseases and contaminants. The presence of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in drinking water has raised health concerns due to their persistence, toxicity, and potential long-term health impacts. In Singapore, tap water is the primary household drinking source, with bottled water as a supplement. Analysis of both revealed low PFAS levels, indicating minimal health risks. Detected PFAS concentrations ranged from 0.30 to 15.17 ng/L in tap water and from 0.05 to 2.45 ng/L in bottled water, well below the US Environmental Protection Agency limits. The PFAS profile primarily consisted of C4–C9 perfluorocarboxylic acids (PFCAs) and perfluorosulfonic acids, with major contributions from PFCA and short-chain perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) containing 5 or fewer CF2 groups. This study emphasizes the need for advanced technologies to remove short-chain PFASs from drinking water and proposes future research directions to protect public health.