Exploring physiological stress of travelling by bicycle and e-scooter in bicycle lane: A comparison study through virtual reality

Abstract

This study examines physiological stress responses in bicycle and e-scooter users, addressing a critical gap in micro-mobility research, which has largely overlooked the psycho-physiological differences between these modes. Using an innovative experimental framework, the study integrates a multi-modal virtual reality (VR) platform with physiological sensors, enabling a safe and controlled comparison of users’ stress responses in a bicycle lane shared used by cyclists and e-scooter riders. A total of 38 participants, including children and adults, participated in this exploratory study. Mixed-effects models were employed to investigate how these micro-mobility modes influence physiological stress and how socio-demographic, environmental, and behavioral factors moderate these effects. The results support our hypotheses: (1) e-scooters generally were associated with lower changes in physiological stress than bicycles; (2) while traveling with both modes, stress responses varied across age, gender and past experiences; (3) road configurations and traffic conditions influenced stress, with age-specific effects observed; and (4) lagged speed critically impacted stress, showing divergent effects between children and adults. These findings provide valuable insights into the complex interplay between physiological stress, traffic modes, and key moderating factors that shape micro-mobility users’ experiences. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for addressing current planning and safety management challenges, particularly as micro-mobility operations continue to expand.