Phthalate Exposure: Prevalence, Health Effects, Regulatory Frameworks, and Remediation.

Abstract

Phthalates, a ubiquitous class of plasticizers, are widely used to enhance the flexibility and durability of plastics. However, their noncovalent association with polymer matrices allows them to leach readily into the environment, raising significant global concerns. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of phthalates, including their chemical structures, properties, and applications, alongside their environmental prevalence and potential health risks. Particular emphasis is placed on the mechanisms of phthalate toxicity, including endocrine disruption, oxidative stress, and epigenetic modifications, with a critical discussion on how these mechanisms contribute to observed health outcomes. The bioaccumulation of phthalates in diverse environments is discussed, highlighting their presence in soil, water, and air. Advanced analytical techniques for phthalate detection are reviewed, with a focus on their strengths and limitations, and the need for more sensitive and accurate methods to monitor environmental contamination is underscored. Epidemiological and laboratory studies are critically examined to provide a detailed understanding of the developmental, reproductive, and systemic health effects associated with phthalate exposure. This review goes beyond summarizing existing knowledge by integrating discussions on regulatory frameworks, current challenges, and future directions for reducing environmental and health risks posed by phthalates. By addressing gaps in recent literature and consolidating diverse findings, this work aims to serve as a valuable resource for researchers and policymakers engaged in mitigating the impacts of phthalates on living organisms and ecosystems.