How to Control N-Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) in Water Treatment: From Origins to Removal

Abstract

N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) in water has garnered significant global attention, driving extensive and ongoing research efforts. However, earlier reviews on the subject have generally lacked the inclusion of the latest publications, and some of the findings reported across different studies remain inconsistent. The present review updates recent advancements in NDMA in water, addressing topics ranging from the origins of NDMA precursors and its formation mechanisms to removal technologies, while also providing an objective assessment of conflicting results in the literature. Insights and strategies for improving NDMA control are discussed, including source reduction, process optimization, and end-of-pipe removal. For practical applications, strategies for NDMA control could be selected based on the cost-effectiveness analysis. It is recommended to use a multiple-barrier system when funds are sufficient. Besides, this review provides a forward-thinking perspective for future NDMA research, suggesting establishing a global NDMA database, based on a combination of experimental tests (e.g., bench tests) and in silico approaches (e.g., quantum chemical computation and machine learning).