In Situ Neutron Reflectometry Reveals the Interfacial Microenvironment Driving Electrochemical Ammonia Synthesis

Abstract

Electrified interfaces are critical to the performance of energy systems and often demonstrate substantial complexity under operating conditions. A nanoscale understanding of the interfacial microenvironment, i.e., the solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI), in lithium-mediated nitrogen reduction (Li–N₂R) is key for realizing efficient ammonia (NH₃) production. Herein, we used time-resolved neutron reflectometry (NR) to observe SEI formation under Li–N₂R conditions. We found that the LiBF₄-based electrolyte provided a substantially more well-defined SEI layer than previous SEI NR interrogations that used LiClO₄, highlighting the underlying chemistry that dictates electrolyte design and enabling new NR-based studies. Using in situ NR, we found that the LiBF₄-derived SEI under Li–N₂R conditions comprises a thick, diffuse outer layer and a thin, compact inner layer at low current cycling (<2 mA/cm²), revealing a structure which ex situ studies have not been able to probe. Increased current cycling and sustained current cycling led to the merging of the layers into a single-layer SEI. We used isotope contrast methods with d₆-EtOH and d₈-THF to drive time-resolved tracking of SEI growth at low current cycling, revealing that the proton donor modifies the inner layer, and the solvent modifies the outer layer. Li dendritic growth was observed in the absence of a proton donor. Neutron absorption also indicated the presence of boron in the SEI, underscoring the value of neutron-based interrogation. Our results inform Li-based systems and reaction microenvironments, and these methods can be applied broadly to interfacial energy technologies.