Contamination of urban waterways: A mini-review of water pollution in the rivers of East Africa's major cities

Abstract

This study performs a mini-review, and provides sustainable solutions for water pollution challenges affecting major rivers flowing through urban areas in East Africa. Through a synthesis of 100 peer-reviewed publications between 2010 and 2023, the research examines deteriorating water quality in rivers; Tana, Nakivubo, Kafue, Ruaha, Ruvu and Mara from untreated municipal and industrial wastewater discharges from expanding cities. Results show that BOD, COD, nutrients, heavy metals and bacteria levels exceed national and international standards, degrading riverine environments and posing public health risks. Key constraints to effective pollution management are identified as overlapping governance responsibilities, outdated legal frameworks, lack of clear discharge standards, weak monitoring and compliance, and financing shortfalls. A suite of integrated solutions is proposed, emphasizing upgraded wastewater infrastructure, industrial effluent controls, and enabling policy reforms with strong multi-stakeholder coordination. The study aims to highlight urban river pollution challenges to guide evidence-based mitigation by East African water managers and policymakers.