{"title":"Evolution of United States’ space policy: An approach of proactive engagement","authors":"Divy Raghuvanshi","doi":"10.1080/01495933.2023.2263338","DOIUrl":null,"url":null,"abstract":"AbstractUnited States space policy has largely reflected the outlook of a major power. The key distinguishing feature of such a state is their willingness to proactively reshape and engage with international regimes and organizations. They do this to protect their strategic goals and national interest. US space policy has historically been shaped by geopolitical tensions and rivalries. Its space policy is an extension of the military doctrines and strategies that it subsequently developed. The article examines different periods since the start of the space race. These periods reflect how US space policy has adapted to meet new challenges. Disclosure statementNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).Notes1 Theresa Hitchens and Joan Johnson-Freese, “Toward a New National Security Space Strategy: Time for a Strategic Rebalancing”, (Atlantic Council Strategy Paper, no. 5 ,2016): iii.2 Hitchens and Johnson-Freese , “Toward a New National Security Space Strategy: Time for a Strategic Rebalancing”, (Atlantic Council Strategy Paper), iii.3 Zachary Keck, “China Secretly Tested an Anti-Satellite Missile”, The Diplomat, March 19, 2014, https://thediplomat.com/2014/03/china-secretly-tested-an-anti-satellite-missile/. (accessed April 12, 2023)4 Zachary Keck, “China Conducted Anti-Satellite Missile Test”, The Diplomat, July 29, 2014, https://thediplomat.com/2014/07/china-conducted-anti-satellite-missile-test/. (accessed March 27, 2023)5 Hitchens and Johnson-Freese, “Toward a New National Security Space Strategy: Time for a Strategic Rebalancing”; ANTONY J. BLINKEN, “Russia Conducts Destructive Anti-Satellite Missile Test”, United States Department of State (blog), November 15, 2021, https://www.state.gov/russia-conducts-destructive-anti-satellite-missile-test/. (accessed July 20, 2023)6 “Department of Defense Establishes U.S. Space Force”, U.S. Department of Defense, December 20, 2019, https://www.defense.gov/News/Releases/Release/Article/2045981/department-of-defense-establishes-us-space-force/ (accessed April 18, 2023)7 Eytan Tepper, “The First Space-Cyber War and the Need for New Regimes and Policies”, (Centre for International Governance Innovation, no. CIGI Policy Brief No. 173, 2022), 2 https://www.cigionline.org/publications/the-first-space-cyber-war-and-the-need-for-new-regimes-and-policies/. (accessed July 17, 2023)8 Patrick Howell O’Neill, “Russia Hacked an American Satellite Company One Hour before the Ukraine Invasion”, MIT Technology Review, May 10, 2022, https://www.technologyreview.com/2022/05/10/1051973/russia-hack-viasat-satellite-ukraine-invasion/. (accessed June 26, 2022)9 Tom Simonite, “How Starlink Scrambled to Keep Ukraine Online”, Wired (blog), May 11, 2022, https://www.wired.com/story/starlink-ukraine-internet/. (accessed June 26, 2022)10 ‘Statement by Deputy Head of the Russian Delegation Mr. Konstantin Vorontsov at the Thematic Discussion on Outer Space (Disarmament Aspects) in the First Committee of the 77th Session of the UNGA’, PERMANENT MISSION OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION TO THE UNITED NATIONS, October 26, 2022, https://russiaun.ru/en/news/261022_v; Elizabeth Howell, “Elon Musk Says Russia Is Ramping up Cyberattacks on SpaceX’s Starlink Systems in Ukraine”, Space.com, October 14, 2022, https://www.space.com/starlink-russian-cyberattacks-ramp-up-efforts-elon-musk.11 “Department of Defense Releases the President’s Fiscal Year 2024 Defense Budget”, U.S. Department of Defense, March 13, 2023, https://www.defense.gov/News/Releases/Release/Article/3326875/department-of-defense-releases-the-presidents-fiscal-year-2024-defense-budget/. (accessed April 18, 2023)12 Ibid.13 Ibid.14 Ibid.15 “USSR Proposal to Ban Military Reconnaissance Satellites”, General CIA Records, 1962, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP66R00638R000100150051-1.pdf. (accessed July 1, 2023)16 “Space-Based Warfare”, (The Hague Centre for Strategic Studies, no. Future Issue No. 6, 2009), 1, https://hcss.nl/report/future-issue-space-based-warfare/. (accessed July 17, 2023)17 Justin Paul George, “History of Anti-Satellite Weapons: US Tested 1st ASAT Missile 60 Years Ago”, The Week, March 27, 2019, https://www.theweek.in/news/sci-tech/2019/03/27/history-anti-satellite-weapon-us-asat-missile.html. (accessed 27 June 2023)18 Kelli Mars, “65 Years Ago: The International Geophysical Year Begins”, NASA, July 6, 2022, http://www.nasa.gov/feature/65-years-ago-the-international-geophysical-year-begins. (accessed April 18, 2023)19 WERNER BUEDELER, THE INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL YEAR, (MC.56/II.21/A, UNESCO AND ITS PROGRAMME), 48, https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000128401.20 “Memorandum of Conference with the President on October 8, 1957, 8:30 a.m. (dated October 9)”, [DDE's Papers as President, DDE Diary Series, Box 27, October ‘57 Staff Notes (2); NAID #12043774], https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/online-documents/sputnik/10-9-57-early-memo.pdf. (accessed February 3,2023)21 “Memorandum of Conference with the President on October 8, 1957, 5:00 p.m. (dated October 9)”, [DDE's Papers as President, DDE Diary Series, Box 27, October ‘57 Staff Notes (2); NAID #12043783], https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/online-documents/sputnik/10-9-57-memo.pdf. (accessed February 3, 2023)22 Constance Mclaughlin Green and Milton Lomask, Vanguard A History, The NASA Historical Series (Washington DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1970), 172.23 “Summary of Discussion, 339th Meeting of the National Security Council October 10, 1957 concerning “Implications of the Soviet Earth Satellite For U.S. Security” and “Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) and Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile (IRBM) Programs,” dated October 11, 1957”, [DDE's Papers as President, NSC Series, Box 9, 339th Meeting of the NSC; NAID #12093096], https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/online-documents/sputnik/10-11-57.pdf. (accessed 23 January 23, 2023)24 “Text of address on “Our Future Security” delivered by the President in Oklahoma City. Subjects include military programs and satellite projects, November 13, 1957”, [DDE's Papers as President, Speech Series, Box 23, Our Future Security 13 Nov 57 (2); NAID #12093109], https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/online-documents/sputnik/11-13-57.pdf. (accessed February 3, 2023)25 “Statement by the National Science Board in response to Russian satellite, October 1957”, [DDE's Records as President, Official File, Box 625, OF 146-F-1 Outer Space, Soviet Satellites-Sputnik; NAID #12060499], https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/online-documents/sputnik/10-1957-statement.pdf. (accessed February 3, 2023)26 “National Science Youth Month termed “Answer to Sputnik,” October 5, 1958, [U.S. President's Committee on Scientists and Engineers, Box 37, Washington DC. 10/5/58; NAID #12093112] https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/online-documents/sputnik/10-5-58.pdf. (accessed February 3, 2023)27 “Sputnik Spurs Passage of the National Defense Education Act”, United States Senate, October 4, 1957, https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/Sputnik_Spurs_Passage_of_National_Defense_Education_Act.htm. (accessed April 18, 2023)28 “Reaction to the Soviet Satellite - A Preliminary Evaluation”, [White House Office of the Staff Research Group, Box 35, Special Projects: Sputnik, Missiles and Related Matters; NAID #12082706], https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/online-documents/sputnik/reaction.pdf. (accessed January 31, 2023)29 “Public Opinion Index, April 14, 1958”, [DDE's Records as President, Official Files, Box 625, OF 146-F-2 Earth-Circling Satellites (2); NAID #12060495], https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/online-documents/sputnik/4-14-58.pdf. (accessed February 3, 2023)30 Donald R. Baucom,”Eisenhower and Ballistic Missile Defense the formative years, 1944-1961”, Air Power History 51, no. 4 (2004): 4-17.31 Bradley G. Shreve, “THE US, THE USSR, AND SPACE EXPLORATION, 1957-1963”, International Journal on World Peace 20, no. 2 (June 2003): 67–83.32 “Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space”, https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/copuos/index.html. (accessed 5 July 2023)33 “Resolution Adopted by The General Assembly” 1721 (XVI). International co-operation in the peaceful uses of outer space”, https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/resolutions/res_16_1721.html#:∼:text=D-,The%20General%20Assembly%2C,1. (accessed April 19, 2023)34 “Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies”, United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introouterspacetreaty.html (accessed 5 July 2023); ‘Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space, and Under Water’, U.S. Department of State, //2009-2017.state.gov/t/avc/trty/199116.htm. (accessed 5 June 2023)35 Robert M. Dienesch, Eyeing the Red Storm: Eisenhower and the First Attempt to Build a Spy Satellite (University of Nebraska Press, 2016), 32. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1d4tzsn.36 “Memorandum of Conference with the President on November 24, 1954; authorization by the President to produce thirty U-2 aircraft”, DDE's Papers as President, Ann Whitman Diary Series, Box 3, ACW Diary November 1954 (1); NAID #186476], https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/online-documents/u2-incident/11-24-54-memo.pdf (accessed February 3, 2023)37 J. Kenneth McDonald, ed., CORONA America’s First Satellite Program, CIA Cold War Records (Center for the Study of Intelligence Central Intelligence Agency Washington, 1995), 4. https://www.cia.gov/static/3d24f7019bf7e718fd1d2a5c57e6a646/corona.pdf.38 “Memorandum of Conference with the President regarding continuation of overflight program, December 22, 1958”, [ Office of the Staff Secretary, Subject Series, Alphabetical Subseries, Box 15, Intelligence Matters (7); NAID #12008567], https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/online-documents/u2-incident/12-22-58-memo.pdf (accessed February 15, 2023).39 “Report on Project Corona, March 17, 1959”, [Office of the Staff Secretary, Subject Series, Alphabetical Subseries, Box 15, Intelligence Matters (10); NAID #12009238], https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/online-documents/u2-incident/3-17-59-project-corona.pdf (accessed February 15, 2023).40 “Paper on Project CORONA (satellite-based overhead surveillance) program progress, March 11, 1959”, [Office of the Staff Secretary, Subject Series, Alphabetical Subseries, Box 15, Intelligence Matters (9); NAID #12008628], https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/online-documents/aerial-intelligence/1959-03-11.pdf (accessed February 15, 2023)41 Dienesch, Eyeing the Red Storm, 199.42 William P. Barry et al., “Helpful Lessons from the Space Race”, Issues in Science and Technology 27, no. 4 (2011): 19–22.43 W. D. Kay, “John F. Kennedy and the Two Faces of the U.S. Space Program, 1961-63”, Presidential Studies Quarterly 28, no. 3 (1998): 573–86.44 “Excerpt from an Address Before a Joint Session of Congress, 25 May 1961”, TNC:200 (excerpt), TNC-200-2, JOHN F. KENNEDY PRESIDENTIAL LIBRARY AND MUSEUM, https://www.jfklibrary.org/learn/about-jfk/historic-speeches/address-to-joint-session-of-congress-may-25-1961 (accessed April 19, 2023).45 John W. Jordan, “Kennedy’s Romantic Moon and Its Rhetorical Legacy for Space Exploration”, Rhetoric and Public Affairs 6, no. 2 (2003): 209–31.46 John M. Logsdon, “John F. Kennedy’s Space Legacy and Its Lessons for Today”, Issues in Science and Technology 27, no. 3 (2011): 29–34.47 Roger D. Launius, “Kennedy’s Space Policy Reconsidered: A Post-Cold War Perspective”, Air Power History 50, no. 4 (2003): 16–29.48 “Strategic Defense Initiative” (United States Department of State Bureau of Public Affam Washqton, D.C., January 6, 1984), 2. https://csps.aerospace.org/sites/default/files/2021-08/SDI%20-%20State%20Dept%20Jun85.pdf. (accessed July 17, 2023)49 “National Security Decision Directive 85: Eliminating the Threat from Ballistic Missiles” (United States. White House Office, March 25, 1983), https://www.hsdl.org/c/abstract?docid=463005; “Strategic Defense Initiative”.50 “REPORT TO THE CONGRESS ON THE STRATEGIC DEFENSE INITIATIVE”, (Strategic Defense Initiative Organization, April 1987).51 “REPORT TO THE CONGRESS ON THE STRATEGIC DEFENSE INITIATIVE”, (Strategic Defense Initiative Organization.52 “THE WHITE HOUSE FACT SHEET National Space Policy”, July 4,1982, 4, https://csps.aerospace.org/sites/default/files/2021-08/National%20Space%20Policy%20Jul82.pdf. (June 29, 2023)53 “THE WHITE HOUSE FACT SHEET National Space Policy”, July 4, 1982, 1, https://csps.aerospace.org/sites/default/files/2021-08/National%20Space%20Policy%20Jul82.pdf. (accessed April 15, 2023)54 “THE WHITE HOUSE FACT SHEET National Space Policy”, 4.55 Curt [R-PA-7 Rep. Weldon, “H.R.4 - 106th Congress (1999-2000): National Missile Defense Act of 1999”, H. Rept. 106-39, Pub. L. No. Public Law No: 106-38 (1999), https://www.congress.gov/bill/106th-congress/house-bill/4. (accessed February 14, 2023)56 James M. Acton, “The U.S. Exit from the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty Has Fueled a New Arms Race”, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, December 13, 2021, https://carnegieendowment.org/2021/12/13/u.s.-exit-from-anti-ballistic-missile-treaty-has-fueled-new-arms-race-pub-85977. (accessed July 17, 2023)57 “National Security Presidential Directive/Nspd-23”, National policy on Ballistic Missile Defense, The White House Washington, 4, https://csps.aerospace.org/sites/default/files/2021-08/NSPD-23%20BMD%20Policy%20Dec02.pdf (accessed April 18, 2023)58 “FACT SHEET: Vice President Harris Advances National Security Norms in Space” (The White House, April 18, 2022), https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/04/18/fact-sheet-vice-president-harris-advances-national-security-norms-in-space/.(accessed June 28, 2023)59 Dwayne A. Day, “Burning Frost, the View from the Ground: Shooting down a Spy Satellite in 2008”, The Space Review, June 21, 2021, https://www.thespacereview.com/article/4198/1. (accessed June 29, 2023)60 Gerald Stang, “Global Commons: Between Cooperation and Competition”, European Union Institute for Security Studies (EUISS), April 1, 2013, 4, https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep06840.61 Christopher A. Ford and Thomas C. Schelling, “Anything but Simple: Arms Control and Strategic Stability” (Strategic Studies Institute, US Army War College, 2013), 201–70, https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep12086.9.62 “FACT SHEET: Vice President Harris Advances National Security Norms in Space”, The White House, ‘FACT SHEET: Vice President Harris Advances National Security Norms in Space’ (The White House, 18 April 2022), https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/04/18/fact-sheet-vice-president-harris-advances-national-security-norms-in-space/. (accessed April 15, 2023)63 Parth Satam, “US “Swarm of Satellites” Can Exhaust Russian, Chinese ASAT Missiles; Help To Track Hypersonic Weapons”, The Eurasian Times, April 8, 2023, https://eurasiantimes.com/us-swarm-of-500-satellites-to-exhaust/. (accessed July 1, 2023)64 “Aide-Memoire on Proposed United Nations General Assembly Resolution on Destructive Direct-Ascent Anti-Satellite Missile Testing” (Geneva: United Nations General Assembly, 21 September 2022), 3, https://undocs.org/en/A/AC.294/2022/WP.21.65 “Memorandum For Secretaries of The Military Departments Chairman Of The Joint Chiefs Of Staff Under Secretaries Of Defense Chiefs Of The Military Services Commanders Of The Combatant Commands General Counsel Of The Department Of Defense Directors Of Defense Agencies”, Tenets of Responsible Behavior in Space, Secretary Of Defense 1000 Defense Pentagon Washington, Dc 20301 -1000, https://media.defense.gov/2021/Jul/23/2002809598/-1/-1/0/TENETS-OF-RESPONSIBLE-BEHAVIOR-IN-SPACE.PDF (accessed April 18,2023)66 Daryl G. Kimball, “U.S. Commits to ASAT Ban”, Arms Control Association, May 2022, https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2022-05/news/us-commits-asat-ban.Additional informationNotes on contributorsDivy RaghuvanshiDivy Raghuvanshi (divyraghuvanshi@outlook.com) is a Doctoral Candidate at School of National Security Studies, Central University of Gujarat, Gandhinagar.","PeriodicalId":35161,"journal":{"name":"Comparative Strategy","volume":"225 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0000,"publicationDate":"2023-10-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":"0","resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":null,"PeriodicalName":"Comparative Strategy","FirstCategoryId":"1085","ListUrlMain":"https://doi.org/10.1080/01495933.2023.2263338","RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":null,"ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":null,"EPubDate":"","PubModel":"","JCR":"Q3","JCRName":"Social Sciences","Score":null,"Total":0}
引用次数: 0
Abstract
AbstractUnited States space policy has largely reflected the outlook of a major power. The key distinguishing feature of such a state is their willingness to proactively reshape and engage with international regimes and organizations. They do this to protect their strategic goals and national interest. US space policy has historically been shaped by geopolitical tensions and rivalries. Its space policy is an extension of the military doctrines and strategies that it subsequently developed. The article examines different periods since the start of the space race. These periods reflect how US space policy has adapted to meet new challenges. Disclosure statementNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).Notes1 Theresa Hitchens and Joan Johnson-Freese, “Toward a New National Security Space Strategy: Time for a Strategic Rebalancing”, (Atlantic Council Strategy Paper, no. 5 ,2016): iii.2 Hitchens and Johnson-Freese , “Toward a New National Security Space Strategy: Time for a Strategic Rebalancing”, (Atlantic Council Strategy Paper), iii.3 Zachary Keck, “China Secretly Tested an Anti-Satellite Missile”, The Diplomat, March 19, 2014, https://thediplomat.com/2014/03/china-secretly-tested-an-anti-satellite-missile/. (accessed April 12, 2023)4 Zachary Keck, “China Conducted Anti-Satellite Missile Test”, The Diplomat, July 29, 2014, https://thediplomat.com/2014/07/china-conducted-anti-satellite-missile-test/. (accessed March 27, 2023)5 Hitchens and Johnson-Freese, “Toward a New National Security Space Strategy: Time for a Strategic Rebalancing”; ANTONY J. BLINKEN, “Russia Conducts Destructive Anti-Satellite Missile Test”, United States Department of State (blog), November 15, 2021, https://www.state.gov/russia-conducts-destructive-anti-satellite-missile-test/. (accessed July 20, 2023)6 “Department of Defense Establishes U.S. Space Force”, U.S. Department of Defense, December 20, 2019, https://www.defense.gov/News/Releases/Release/Article/2045981/department-of-defense-establishes-us-space-force/ (accessed April 18, 2023)7 Eytan Tepper, “The First Space-Cyber War and the Need for New Regimes and Policies”, (Centre for International Governance Innovation, no. CIGI Policy Brief No. 173, 2022), 2 https://www.cigionline.org/publications/the-first-space-cyber-war-and-the-need-for-new-regimes-and-policies/. (accessed July 17, 2023)8 Patrick Howell O’Neill, “Russia Hacked an American Satellite Company One Hour before the Ukraine Invasion”, MIT Technology Review, May 10, 2022, https://www.technologyreview.com/2022/05/10/1051973/russia-hack-viasat-satellite-ukraine-invasion/. (accessed June 26, 2022)9 Tom Simonite, “How Starlink Scrambled to Keep Ukraine Online”, Wired (blog), May 11, 2022, https://www.wired.com/story/starlink-ukraine-internet/. (accessed June 26, 2022)10 ‘Statement by Deputy Head of the Russian Delegation Mr. Konstantin Vorontsov at the Thematic Discussion on Outer Space (Disarmament Aspects) in the First Committee of the 77th Session of the UNGA’, PERMANENT MISSION OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION TO THE UNITED NATIONS, October 26, 2022, https://russiaun.ru/en/news/261022_v; Elizabeth Howell, “Elon Musk Says Russia Is Ramping up Cyberattacks on SpaceX’s Starlink Systems in Ukraine”, Space.com, October 14, 2022, https://www.space.com/starlink-russian-cyberattacks-ramp-up-efforts-elon-musk.11 “Department of Defense Releases the President’s Fiscal Year 2024 Defense Budget”, U.S. Department of Defense, March 13, 2023, https://www.defense.gov/News/Releases/Release/Article/3326875/department-of-defense-releases-the-presidents-fiscal-year-2024-defense-budget/. (accessed April 18, 2023)12 Ibid.13 Ibid.14 Ibid.15 “USSR Proposal to Ban Military Reconnaissance Satellites”, General CIA Records, 1962, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP66R00638R000100150051-1.pdf. (accessed July 1, 2023)16 “Space-Based Warfare”, (The Hague Centre for Strategic Studies, no. Future Issue No. 6, 2009), 1, https://hcss.nl/report/future-issue-space-based-warfare/. (accessed July 17, 2023)17 Justin Paul George, “History of Anti-Satellite Weapons: US Tested 1st ASAT Missile 60 Years Ago”, The Week, March 27, 2019, https://www.theweek.in/news/sci-tech/2019/03/27/history-anti-satellite-weapon-us-asat-missile.html. (accessed 27 June 2023)18 Kelli Mars, “65 Years Ago: The International Geophysical Year Begins”, NASA, July 6, 2022, http://www.nasa.gov/feature/65-years-ago-the-international-geophysical-year-begins. (accessed April 18, 2023)19 WERNER BUEDELER, THE INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL YEAR, (MC.56/II.21/A, UNESCO AND ITS PROGRAMME), 48, https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000128401.20 “Memorandum of Conference with the President on October 8, 1957, 8:30 a.m. (dated October 9)”, [DDE's Papers as President, DDE Diary Series, Box 27, October ‘57 Staff Notes (2); NAID #12043774], https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/online-documents/sputnik/10-9-57-early-memo.pdf. (accessed February 3,2023)21 “Memorandum of Conference with the President on October 8, 1957, 5:00 p.m. (dated October 9)”, [DDE's Papers as President, DDE Diary Series, Box 27, October ‘57 Staff Notes (2); NAID #12043783], https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/online-documents/sputnik/10-9-57-memo.pdf. (accessed February 3, 2023)22 Constance Mclaughlin Green and Milton Lomask, Vanguard A History, The NASA Historical Series (Washington DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1970), 172.23 “Summary of Discussion, 339th Meeting of the National Security Council October 10, 1957 concerning “Implications of the Soviet Earth Satellite For U.S. Security” and “Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) and Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile (IRBM) Programs,” dated October 11, 1957”, [DDE's Papers as President, NSC Series, Box 9, 339th Meeting of the NSC; NAID #12093096], https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/online-documents/sputnik/10-11-57.pdf. (accessed 23 January 23, 2023)24 “Text of address on “Our Future Security” delivered by the President in Oklahoma City. Subjects include military programs and satellite projects, November 13, 1957”, [DDE's Papers as President, Speech Series, Box 23, Our Future Security 13 Nov 57 (2); NAID #12093109], https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/online-documents/sputnik/11-13-57.pdf. (accessed February 3, 2023)25 “Statement by the National Science Board in response to Russian satellite, October 1957”, [DDE's Records as President, Official File, Box 625, OF 146-F-1 Outer Space, Soviet Satellites-Sputnik; NAID #12060499], https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/online-documents/sputnik/10-1957-statement.pdf. (accessed February 3, 2023)26 “National Science Youth Month termed “Answer to Sputnik,” October 5, 1958, [U.S. President's Committee on Scientists and Engineers, Box 37, Washington DC. 10/5/58; NAID #12093112] https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/online-documents/sputnik/10-5-58.pdf. (accessed February 3, 2023)27 “Sputnik Spurs Passage of the National Defense Education Act”, United States Senate, October 4, 1957, https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/Sputnik_Spurs_Passage_of_National_Defense_Education_Act.htm. (accessed April 18, 2023)28 “Reaction to the Soviet Satellite - A Preliminary Evaluation”, [White House Office of the Staff Research Group, Box 35, Special Projects: Sputnik, Missiles and Related Matters; NAID #12082706], https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/online-documents/sputnik/reaction.pdf. (accessed January 31, 2023)29 “Public Opinion Index, April 14, 1958”, [DDE's Records as President, Official Files, Box 625, OF 146-F-2 Earth-Circling Satellites (2); NAID #12060495], https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/online-documents/sputnik/4-14-58.pdf. (accessed February 3, 2023)30 Donald R. Baucom,”Eisenhower and Ballistic Missile Defense the formative years, 1944-1961”, Air Power History 51, no. 4 (2004): 4-17.31 Bradley G. Shreve, “THE US, THE USSR, AND SPACE EXPLORATION, 1957-1963”, International Journal on World Peace 20, no. 2 (June 2003): 67–83.32 “Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space”, https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/copuos/index.html. (accessed 5 July 2023)33 “Resolution Adopted by The General Assembly” 1721 (XVI). International co-operation in the peaceful uses of outer space”, https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/resolutions/res_16_1721.html#:∼:text=D-,The%20General%20Assembly%2C,1. (accessed April 19, 2023)34 “Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies”, United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introouterspacetreaty.html (accessed 5 July 2023); ‘Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space, and Under Water’, U.S. Department of State, //2009-2017.state.gov/t/avc/trty/199116.htm. (accessed 5 June 2023)35 Robert M. Dienesch, Eyeing the Red Storm: Eisenhower and the First Attempt to Build a Spy Satellite (University of Nebraska Press, 2016), 32. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1d4tzsn.36 “Memorandum of Conference with the President on November 24, 1954; authorization by the President to produce thirty U-2 aircraft”, DDE's Papers as President, Ann Whitman Diary Series, Box 3, ACW Diary November 1954 (1); NAID #186476], https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/online-documents/u2-incident/11-24-54-memo.pdf (accessed February 3, 2023)37 J. Kenneth McDonald, ed., CORONA America’s First Satellite Program, CIA Cold War Records (Center for the Study of Intelligence Central Intelligence Agency Washington, 1995), 4. https://www.cia.gov/static/3d24f7019bf7e718fd1d2a5c57e6a646/corona.pdf.38 “Memorandum of Conference with the President regarding continuation of overflight program, December 22, 1958”, [ Office of the Staff Secretary, Subject Series, Alphabetical Subseries, Box 15, Intelligence Matters (7); NAID #12008567], https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/online-documents/u2-incident/12-22-58-memo.pdf (accessed February 15, 2023).39 “Report on Project Corona, March 17, 1959”, [Office of the Staff Secretary, Subject Series, Alphabetical Subseries, Box 15, Intelligence Matters (10); NAID #12009238], https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/online-documents/u2-incident/3-17-59-project-corona.pdf (accessed February 15, 2023).40 “Paper on Project CORONA (satellite-based overhead surveillance) program progress, March 11, 1959”, [Office of the Staff Secretary, Subject Series, Alphabetical Subseries, Box 15, Intelligence Matters (9); NAID #12008628], https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/research/online-documents/aerial-intelligence/1959-03-11.pdf (accessed February 15, 2023)41 Dienesch, Eyeing the Red Storm, 199.42 William P. Barry et al., “Helpful Lessons from the Space Race”, Issues in Science and Technology 27, no. 4 (2011): 19–22.43 W. D. Kay, “John F. Kennedy and the Two Faces of the U.S. Space Program, 1961-63”, Presidential Studies Quarterly 28, no. 3 (1998): 573–86.44 “Excerpt from an Address Before a Joint Session of Congress, 25 May 1961”, TNC:200 (excerpt), TNC-200-2, JOHN F. KENNEDY PRESIDENTIAL LIBRARY AND MUSEUM, https://www.jfklibrary.org/learn/about-jfk/historic-speeches/address-to-joint-session-of-congress-may-25-1961 (accessed April 19, 2023).45 John W. Jordan, “Kennedy’s Romantic Moon and Its Rhetorical Legacy for Space Exploration”, Rhetoric and Public Affairs 6, no. 2 (2003): 209–31.46 John M. Logsdon, “John F. Kennedy’s Space Legacy and Its Lessons for Today”, Issues in Science and Technology 27, no. 3 (2011): 29–34.47 Roger D. Launius, “Kennedy’s Space Policy Reconsidered: A Post-Cold War Perspective”, Air Power History 50, no. 4 (2003): 16–29.48 “Strategic Defense Initiative” (United States Department of State Bureau of Public Affam Washqton, D.C., January 6, 1984), 2. https://csps.aerospace.org/sites/default/files/2021-08/SDI%20-%20State%20Dept%20Jun85.pdf. (accessed July 17, 2023)49 “National Security Decision Directive 85: Eliminating the Threat from Ballistic Missiles” (United States. White House Office, March 25, 1983), https://www.hsdl.org/c/abstract?docid=463005; “Strategic Defense Initiative”.50 “REPORT TO THE CONGRESS ON THE STRATEGIC DEFENSE INITIATIVE”, (Strategic Defense Initiative Organization, April 1987).51 “REPORT TO THE CONGRESS ON THE STRATEGIC DEFENSE INITIATIVE”, (Strategic Defense Initiative Organization.52 “THE WHITE HOUSE FACT SHEET National Space Policy”, July 4,1982, 4, https://csps.aerospace.org/sites/default/files/2021-08/National%20Space%20Policy%20Jul82.pdf. (June 29, 2023)53 “THE WHITE HOUSE FACT SHEET National Space Policy”, July 4, 1982, 1, https://csps.aerospace.org/sites/default/files/2021-08/National%20Space%20Policy%20Jul82.pdf. (accessed April 15, 2023)54 “THE WHITE HOUSE FACT SHEET National Space Policy”, 4.55 Curt [R-PA-7 Rep. Weldon, “H.R.4 - 106th Congress (1999-2000): National Missile Defense Act of 1999”, H. Rept. 106-39, Pub. L. No. Public Law No: 106-38 (1999), https://www.congress.gov/bill/106th-congress/house-bill/4. (accessed February 14, 2023)56 James M. Acton, “The U.S. Exit from the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty Has Fueled a New Arms Race”, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, December 13, 2021, https://carnegieendowment.org/2021/12/13/u.s.-exit-from-anti-ballistic-missile-treaty-has-fueled-new-arms-race-pub-85977. (accessed July 17, 2023)57 “National Security Presidential Directive/Nspd-23”, National policy on Ballistic Missile Defense, The White House Washington, 4, https://csps.aerospace.org/sites/default/files/2021-08/NSPD-23%20BMD%20Policy%20Dec02.pdf (accessed April 18, 2023)58 “FACT SHEET: Vice President Harris Advances National Security Norms in Space” (The White House, April 18, 2022), https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/04/18/fact-sheet-vice-president-harris-advances-national-security-norms-in-space/.(accessed June 28, 2023)59 Dwayne A. Day, “Burning Frost, the View from the Ground: Shooting down a Spy Satellite in 2008”, The Space Review, June 21, 2021, https://www.thespacereview.com/article/4198/1. (accessed June 29, 2023)60 Gerald Stang, “Global Commons: Between Cooperation and Competition”, European Union Institute for Security Studies (EUISS), April 1, 2013, 4, https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep06840.61 Christopher A. Ford and Thomas C. Schelling, “Anything but Simple: Arms Control and Strategic Stability” (Strategic Studies Institute, US Army War College, 2013), 201–70, https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep12086.9.62 “FACT SHEET: Vice President Harris Advances National Security Norms in Space”, The White House, ‘FACT SHEET: Vice President Harris Advances National Security Norms in Space’ (The White House, 18 April 2022), https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/04/18/fact-sheet-vice-president-harris-advances-national-security-norms-in-space/. (accessed April 15, 2023)63 Parth Satam, “US “Swarm of Satellites” Can Exhaust Russian, Chinese ASAT Missiles; Help To Track Hypersonic Weapons”, The Eurasian Times, April 8, 2023, https://eurasiantimes.com/us-swarm-of-500-satellites-to-exhaust/. (accessed July 1, 2023)64 “Aide-Memoire on Proposed United Nations General Assembly Resolution on Destructive Direct-Ascent Anti-Satellite Missile Testing” (Geneva: United Nations General Assembly, 21 September 2022), 3, https://undocs.org/en/A/AC.294/2022/WP.21.65 “Memorandum For Secretaries of The Military Departments Chairman Of The Joint Chiefs Of Staff Under Secretaries Of Defense Chiefs Of The Military Services Commanders Of The Combatant Commands General Counsel Of The Department Of Defense Directors Of Defense Agencies”, Tenets of Responsible Behavior in Space, Secretary Of Defense 1000 Defense Pentagon Washington, Dc 20301 -1000, https://media.defense.gov/2021/Jul/23/2002809598/-1/-1/0/TENETS-OF-RESPONSIBLE-BEHAVIOR-IN-SPACE.PDF (accessed April 18,2023)66 Daryl G. Kimball, “U.S. Commits to ASAT Ban”, Arms Control Association, May 2022, https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2022-05/news/us-commits-asat-ban.Additional informationNotes on contributorsDivy RaghuvanshiDivy Raghuvanshi (divyraghuvanshi@outlook.com) is a Doctoral Candidate at School of National Security Studies, Central University of Gujarat, Gandhinagar.