From Imperialists to Pacifists: American Quakers and US-China Relations in the Cold War

Abstract

ABSTRACTThis article examines how American Quakers transcended the divide between the United States and the People’s Republic of China during the Cold War. Unlike many former Protestant missionaries to China who became vocal anti-communists after the Chinese Revolution of 1949, Quakers in the American Friends and Service Committee (AFSC) criticised the hostile US policy toward China and sought to restore their historical ties with China. Drawing on documents from the AFSC Archive, as well as some Chinese and Japanese materials, we argue that the efforts of American Quakers to rebrand themselves from imperialists to pacifists facilitated their comeback to China.KEYWORDS: Cold WarQuakersChinareligionpacifism Notes1 This article uses ‘China’ for the People’s Republic of China, a regime ruling mainland China, and ‘Taiwan’ for the Republic of China, a regime ruling the island of Taiwan, unless otherwise specified.2 William Inboden, Religion and American Foreign Policy, 1945-1960: The Soul of Containment (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 181-4.3 For American Quakers’ activities in China before 1951, see Jacqueline Bruzio, ‘Historical Survey of AFSC Efforts in China, 1917-2005’, undated, 1-27, available at http://library.haverford.edu/eastasian/Files/AFSC Asia.pdf accessed 11 April 2022; Susan Armstrong-Reid, China Gadabouts: New Frontiers of Humanitarian Nursing, 1941-51 (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2018); and Lyn Smith, ‘Quakers in Uniform: The Friends Ambulance Unit’, in Challenge to Mars: Essays on Pacifism from 1918 to 1945, ed. Peter Brock and Thomas Socknat (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999), 243-55.4 Inboden, Religion and American Foreign Policy, 161-2; and Armstrong-Reid, China Gadabouts, 170-1.5 Anne Bennett, Dining with Diplomats, Praying with Gunmen: Experiences of International Conciliation for a New Generation of Peacemakers (London: Quaker Books, 2020), 22.6 See, for example, Dianne Kirby, ‘Christian anti-communism’ Twentieth-Century Communism, no. 7 (2014), 126-52.7 ‘Inaugural Address, January 20, 1949’, in Public Papers of the President of the United States, Harry S. Truman, 1949 (Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1964), 112; William Inboden, Religion and American Foreign Policy, 42, 157-89; Elisabeth Sifton, ed., Reinhold Niebuhr: Major Works on Religion and Politics (New York, NY: The Literary Classics of the United States, 2015), 549–55.8 Society of Friends, ‘Statement on the Society of Friends Used in China’, 1956, ‘China, Mission to Foreign Service’ folder, Foreign Service 1956, American Friends Service Committee Archives, Philadelphia, PA, the United States (hereafter AFSC). On FBI surveillance of the Quakers, see Kathryn Montalbano, ‘The FBI and the American Friends Service Committee: Surveilling United States Religious Expression in the Cold War Era,’ in Making Surveillance States: Transnational Histories, eds. Robert Heynen and Emily van der Meulen (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2019), 238-60.9 For the concept and practice of Quaker humanitarianism, see Bruzio, Historical Survey, 12-3; Daniel Maul, ‘American Quakers, the Emergence of International Humanitarianism, and the Foundation of the American Friends Service Committee, 1890-1920’, in Dilemmas of Humanitarian Aid in the Twentieth Century, ed. Johannes Paulmann (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016); Daniel Maul, ‘The Politics of Neutrality: The American Friends Service Committee and the Spanish Civil War, 1936-1939’, European Review History 23, no.1-2 (2016), 82-100; Lyndon S. Back, ‘The Quaker Mission in Poland: Relief, Reconstruction and Religion’, Quaker History 101, no. 2 (Fall 2012), 1-23; and Ilana Feldman, ‘The Quaker Way: Ethical Labor and Humanitarian Relief’, American Ethnologist 34, no. 4 (November 2007), 689-705.10 For a summary of this rich scholarship, see Dianne Kirby, ‘The Cold War and American Religion’, in Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion, ed. John Barton, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015) https://oxfordre.com/religion/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-398 accessed 18 August 2022. On Christian reactions to the Vietnam War, see David E. Settje, Faith and War: How Christians Debated the Cold and Vietnam Wars (New York: New York University Press, 2011).11 See, for example, Mao Tse-tung, Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung, vol. 4 (Beijing: Foreign Language Press, 1961), 447-50.12 Stanley D. Bachrack, The Committee of One Million: ‘China Lobby’ Politics, 1953-1971 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1976).13 See, for example, Meredith Oyen, The Diplomacy of Migration: Transnational Lives and the Making of U.S.-Chinese Relations in the Cold War (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2015); Kazushi Minami, ‘Oil for the Lamps of America? Sino-American Oil Diplomacy, 1973-1979’, Diplomatic History 41, no. 5 (November 2017), 959-84; Hongshan Li, ‘Building a Black Bridge: China’s Interaction with African-American Activists during the Cold War’, Journal of Cold War Studies 20, no. 3 (2018), 114-52; Kazushi Minami, ‘“How Could I Not Love You? ”: Transnational Feminism and US-Chinese Relations during the Cold War’, Journal of Women’s History 31, no. 4 (Winter 2019), 12-36; and Pete Millwood, ‘An “Exceedingly Delicate Undertaking”: Sino-American Science Diplomacy, 1966-78’, Journal of Contemporary History 56, no. 1 (2021), 166-90.14 CCP Central Archives and Manuscript Division, ed., Jianguo yilai zhongyao wenxian xuanbian [Important Documents since the Founding of the Nation], vol. 1 (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 1992), 409.15 Donald E. Maclnnis, Religious Policy and Practice in Communist China: A Document History (New York: Macmillan Company, 1972), 25-7.16 Jianguo yilai zhongyao wenxian xuanbian, 185-6.17 Ibid, 409-10.18 ‘Zhongguo Jidujiaojie fabiao xuanyan’ [Chinese Christians Issues a Manifesto], Renmin ribao [People’s Daily], 23 September 1950.19 ‘Guowuyuan guanyu zongjiao gongzuo de zhangguan he jigou wenti de tongzhi’ [Notification of the State Council on Management and Organization of Religious Affair], Zhonghua renmin gongheguo guowuyuan gongbao [Bulletin of the State Council of the People’s Republic of China], 22 (1955), 1059.20 Armstrong-Reid, China Gadabouts, 234-7; and ‘Annual Report, 1951’ (American Friends Service Committee, 1951), 13.21 ‘Annual Report, 1950’ (American Friends Service Committee, 1950), 11.22 Kong Zhe, ‘Meiguo gongyi fuwu weiyuanhui yu Zhongmei jianjiao’ [The American Friends Service Committee and the Establishment of US-China Diplomatic Relations], Gonggong waijiao jikan [Public Diplomacy Quarterly], 21 (Spring 2015), 102.23 Duncan Wood, ‘British Friends Mission to China’, International Affairs Reports from Quaker Workers 3, no.1 (23 January 1956), 1-2.24 On the Conferences for Diplomats, see ‘Diplomats Conference Outreach Grows’, American Friends Service Committee Bulletin 50 (November and December 1956), 8.25 Duncan Wood, ‘Quaker Relations with China’, 4 March 1963, ‘Administration-China Correspondence 58938’ folder, International Affairs Division (hereafter IAD) 1963, AFSC.26 Duncan Wood et al. to Chou En-lai, 6 July 1962, ‘Administration: China 60291’ folder, IAD 1962, AFSC.27 Noam Kochavi, A Conflict Perpetuated: China Policy During the Kennedy Years (Westport: Praeger, 2002).28 Roger Hilsman, ‘United States Policy Toward Communist China’, The Department of State Bulletin, 6 January 1964, 11-7.29 Cecil Evans, ‘Lunch with Roger Hilsman’, 1 April 1964, ‘China Projects 57785’ folder, IAD 1964, AFSC.30 Memorandum, ‘China Approach Program’, 17 December 1963, ‘China Approach Committee 58926’ folder, IAD 1963, AFSC.31 Cecil Evans, ‘Report of Meeting with Chinese Consul-General in Geneva, 20th February, 1964’, 28 February 1964, ‘China Projects 57785’ folder, IAD 1964, AFSC.32 Memorandum, Paul B. Johnson to Nora Booth, ‘Our China Contact in Warsaw’,13 March 1964, ‘China Approach Committee 57782’ folder, IAD 1964, AFSC.33 ‘Brief Report on Cecil Evans’ Visit to the U.S. and Canada 1st March-1st May, 1964’, 20 April 1964, ‘China Projects 57785’ folder, IAD 1964, AFSC; and Li Jiechuan, ‘1960 niandai ZhongJia xiaomai maoyi dui jianada de zhongyaoxing’ [the Importance for Canada of China-Canada Wheat Trade in the 1960s], Tianjin shifan daxue xuebao (shehui kexue ban) [Tianjin Normal University Journal (Social Science)], no. 3 (2005), 28.34 Norman H. Wilson, ‘Report of September 9, 1963 Meeting on Quaker Approaches to Mainland China’, 12 September 1963, ‘China Contact Committee-Tokyo 58928’ folder, IAD 1963, AFSC.35 Norman H. Wilson, ‘Possible Contacts with China as Seen from Japan’, 22 April 1964, ‘China Approach Committee 57782’ folder, IAD 1964, AFSC.36 Cable, Embassy in Poland to Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 4 April 1964, 113-00408-03, Foreign Ministry Archives, China.37 Stella Alexander, ‘Visit to the Chinese Charge D’Affaires. June 23, 1964’, 25 June 1964, ‘China Contacts 57784’ folder, IAD 1964, AFSC.38 ‘Zhongguo Jidujiao juxing dierjie quanguo huiyi’ [The Chinese Church Held the Second National Conference], Renmin ribao, 22 January 1961.39 United Front Work Department of the CCP Shanghai Municipal Committee, ‘Zhonggong Shanghai shiwei tongzhanbu guanyu Wu Yaozong dui Jidujiao gongzuo de fangzhen he renwu tichu yijian de baogao’ [Report on Wu Yaozong’s Opinions on the Policy and Tasks of Christianity Work by the United Front Work Department of the CCP Shanghai Municipal Committee], 26 November 1965, A33-2-122-85, Shanghai Municipal Archives, China.40 Andrew Preston, Sword of the Spirit, Shield of Faith: Religion in American War and Diplomacy (New York, Toronto: Alfred A. Knopf, 2012), 508-9; Li Shiwen, ‘Di’er Jie Fandiganggonghuiyi Zai Ganshenme?’ [What Is the Second Vatican Council Doing], Xinge [Pigeon], no. 2 (1964): 13.41 ‘Annual Report, 1963’ (American Friends Service Committee, 1963), 1.42 ‘Annual Report, 1965’ (American Friends Service Committee, 1965), 10; ‘Annual Report, 1966’ (American Friends Service Committee, 1966), 1. For Quaker peace activism over Vietnam, see, for example, Elizabeth Jelinek Boardman, The Phoenix Trip: Notes on a Quaker Mission to Haiphong (Burnsville, NC: Celo Press, 1985).43 American Friends Service Committee, A New China Policy: Some Quakers Proposals (New Haven, CT 1965), 2-12, 21-30.44 Stewart Meacham to Richard Wood, 6 July 1965, ‘China Policy Working Party 57307’ folder, Peace Education Division (hereafter PED) 1965, AFSC; and Richard Madsen, China and the American Dream: A Moral Inquiry (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 107-8.45 Norman H. Wilson to Kosaku Yamaguchi, 25 June 1965, ‘China Policy Working Party 57307’ folder, PED 1965, AFSC.46 Takeuchi Ryūji, ‘Beikoku no Chūkyō seisaku ni kansuru Beikoku Kuēkā dantai no teian’[American Quaker Group’s Proposal on the US Policy toward Communist China], 11 May 1965, ‘American Quaker Group and Town Hall’s Proposal of China Policy’ folder, 2013-2476, Diplomatic Archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, Tokyo, Japan.47 ‘Peking and Washington’, The Washington Post, 5 May 1965.48 ‘National Conference on the United States and China’, April 1965, ‘Conferences 57317’ folder, PED 1965, AFSC.49 ‘Address by Tingfu F. Tsiang on China and the United Nations’, 30 April 1965, ‘Conferences 57317’ folder, PED 1965, AFSC.50 ‘Address by Arthur Lall on China and the United Nations’, 30 April 1965, ‘Conferences 57317’ folder, PED 1965, AFSC.51 Robert A. Scalapino and Pamela Mang, A History of the Origins of the National Committee on United States-China Relations (Christopher Reynolds Foundation 1976), 1-4.52 Harriet Dashiell Schwar, ed., Foreign Relations of the United States (hereafter FRUS), 1964-8, vol. 30 (Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1998), document 297.53 Richard M. Nixon, ‘Asia After Vietnam’, Foreign Affairs 46, no. 1 (October 1967), 121.54 Preston, Sword of the Spirit, Shield of Faith, 553.55 Thomas B. Manton et al., ‘Prospectus: Committee for a New China Policy’, 9 May 1969, ‘Correspondence 50907’ folder, IAD 1969, AFSC.56 Memorandum, Sharon Nichter, ‘Tokuma Utsunomiya’, 21 March 1969, ‘General 50910’ folder, IAD 1969, AFSC.57 C. B. Firth, ‘Report of China Seminar, 14-15th March, 1969’, 16 April 1969, ‘China: Comms. and Orgs. 50904’ folder, IAD 1969, AFSC; Jonathan Tian-En Chao, ‘Some Ideas on the Direction of Chinese Theological Development’, Bulletin of the Chinese Fellowship for Christian Studies, 2 and 3, 17-25, 28-43; and Madsen, China and American Dream, 108-15.58 Michael Wilson, ‘The Liberal Threat to Mao’s Revolution: How Pekin Might View Recent Quaker Approaches to China’, May 11, 1970, ‘IAD QUNO 50453’ folder, IAD 1971, AFSC.59 Duncan Wood to Jackson Bailey, 11 March 1969, ‘Correspondence 50906’ folder, IAD 1969, AFSC.60 CCP Central Archives and Manuscript Division, ed., Zhou Enlai nianpu, 1949-1976 [Chronicle of Zhou Enlai], vol. 3 (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2007), 459.61 Raymond L. Whitehead and Rhea M. Whitehead, ‘China Program Report’, September 22, 1972, ‘Oksenberg, Michel 111’ folder, National Archive on Sino-American Relations Records, 1971-84, Box 10, Bentley Historical Library.62 CCP Central Archives and Manuscript Division and State Council Office of Religion, eds., Xinshiqi zongjiao gongzuo wenxian xuanbian [Selected Documents on Religious Work in the New Era] (Beijing: Zongjiao wenhua chubanshe 2014), 58.63 Wallace T. Collett, ‘Notes on Visit to People’s Republic of China, May 6-27, 1972’, undated, ‘AFSC Delegation 47049’ folder, IAD 1972, AFSC; and ‘Jianpuzhai guojia yuanshou Xihanuke qinwang jiejian “Meiguo gongyi fuwuhui” de chengyuan’ [Prince Sihanouk, Top Leader of Cambodia, met the AFSC members], Renmin ribao, 26 August 1971.64 Bronson P. Clark, ‘People’s Republic of China and AFSC Programs, Report 1’, 16 September 1971, Report to the AFSC Board Meeting, September 1971, in courtesy of Don Davis.65 Ibid.66 Henry Beerits to China International Travel Service, 12 August 1971, ‘AFSC Delegation 47045’ folder, IAD 1972, AFSC.67 Wallace T. Collett to Yang Gongsu, 14 February 1972, ‘AFSC Delegation 47045’ folder, IAD 1972, AFSC.68 Memorandum, John Sullivan to Bronson Clark, ‘Visit to Kao Liang, February 23’, 24 February 1972, ‘AFSC Delegation 47045’ folder, IAD 1972, AFSC.69 Steven E. Phillips, ed., FRUS, 1969-76, vol. 17 (Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 2006), document 203.70 On Chinese propaganda, see Julia Lovell, ‘The Uses of Foreigners in Mao-Era China: “Techniques of Hospitality” and International Image-Building in the People’s Republic, 1949-1976’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 25 (2015), 135-58.71 AFSC, Experiment without Precedent: Some Quaker Observations on China Today (Philadelphia: American Friends Service Committee, 1972).72 Margaret Bacon, ‘Our Delegation’s Main Impressions and Evaluations’, undated, ‘AFSC Delegation 47049’ folder, IAD 1972, AFSC. See also Minami, ‘How Can I Not Love You?’.73 John Sullivan, ‘Memo to Bronson Clark, etc.’, 4 June 1972, ‘AFSC Delegation 47049’ folder, IAD 1972, AFSC.74 ‘Lüyou Jianbao’ [Travel Digest], 168, 17 May 1972, 196-1-512, Shaanxi Provincial Archive (SPA), Xi’an, China.75 Wallace Collett, ‘Statement of the American Friends Service Committee Delegation’, 15 May 1972, ‘AFSC Delegation 47041’ folder, IAD 1972, AFSC.76 ‘Notes on AFSC China Delegation Meeting with Kuo Mo Jo’, 24 May 1972, ‘AFSC Delegation 47049’ folder, IAD 1972, AFSC.77 ‘Guo Moruo fuweiyuanzhang huijian Meiguo keren’ [Vice Chairman Guo Moruo Met American Guests], Renmin ribao, 25 May 1972.78 ‘Lüyou Jianbao’ [Travel Digest], 161, 13 May 1972, 196-1-512, SPA.79 Bronson P. Clark to Yueh Tai-heng, 12 July 1972, ‘U.S. Visit of Chinese’ folder, PED 1972, AFSC; and CITS to Bronson P. Clark, 29 December 1973, ‘Proposed Visit to Chinese to U.S. 45924’ folder, IAD 1973, AFSC.80 Chris Gilmartin and Bronson P. Clark to Yueh Tai-Heng, 12 July 1972, ‘U.S. Visit of Chinese’ folder, PED 1972, AFSC.81 Chinese People’s Association for Friendship with Foreign Countries, ‘Waibin qingkuang jianbao [Report on the situation of foreign guests] 554’, 28 November 1972, 196-1-515-6, SPA.82 Ministries of Foreign Affairs and Pubic Security, ‘Guanyu jiaqiang dui zongjiao zhiyezhe lai Hua tanqin de shencha de tongzhi’ [Notice on Strengthening the Screening of Religious Professionals Visiting China for Family Reunion], 19 August 1975, authors’ personal collection.83 ‘Conference Statement of the National Leadership Conference on U.S.-China Relations’, 28 December 1976, ‘#3809 China: Conferences and Seminars’ folder, ID 1977, AFSC.84 Xinshiqi zongjiao gongzuo wenxian xuanbian, 1-4.85 George Vecsey, ‘Clerics Say China Is Allowing Religions More Freedom’, New York Times, 29 August 1979.86 Xinshiqi zongjiao gongzuo wenxian xuanbian, 57.87 Chen Lin and Tao Feiya, ‘Cong Lishi Shijiao Kan Fan’er Huiyi Yu Zhongguo Tianzhujiaohui [Analyzing Vantican II and Chinese Catholic Church from the Historic Perspective]’, Shijie zongjiao yanjiu [World Religion Study], no. 6 (2012), 28–39.88 Ibid, 70-1.89 Ibid, 119.90 For Western missionaries’ healthcare service in China in the 19th century, see Wang Zhixin, Zhongguo Jidujiao shigang [Outline of the History of Chinese Christianity] (Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe, 2004), 287-300.91 Lewis M. Hoskins, ‘Health and Medical Services in China Today’, October 1978, ‘Health and Medical Service in China Today 38013’ folder, ID 1978, AFSC.92 Sally R. Harrison, ‘Report of U.S. Study Tour by Chinese Surgical Transplant Team, October-November 1979’, undated, ‘China: Projects, Doctors Visit to U.S.’ folder, ID 1979, AFSC.93 Fong-Chung Tung to Sally R. Harrison, 7 March 1980, ‘China: Projects, Doctors Visit to U.S.’ folder, ID 1979, AFSC.94 ‘Quakers Will Relay Gift of Pacemakers to China Hospitals’, The Washington Post, 12 July 1981.95 Memorandum, Dave Elder, ‘Proposed Exchange of Peace Delegations with China’, 13 September 1983, ‘Peace Exchanges-US to China 10967’ folder, ID 1984, AFSC.96 AFSC and CET, ‘Report of United States Peace Activists Delegation to the People’s Republic of China, January 1-16, 1984’, undated, ‘Peace Exchanges-US to China 10967’ folder, ID 1984, AFSC.97 ‘Li Yimang juxing zhaodaihui huanying Meiguo heping yundongjia daibiaotuan’ [Li Yimang Held A Reception Dinner for American Pacifist Delegation], Renmin ribao, 5 January 1984.98 ‘Secretary-General of CAFIU Meets with U.S. Pacifists’, Xinhua General Overseas News Service, 12 July 1984.99 For the connections between China’s religious policy and united front work, see Xu Yihua and Liu Qian, ‘Anquan yu Tongzhan: Xinzhongguo zongjiao zhengce de shuangchongjiedu’ [Security and united front: A two-layered analysis of New China’s religious policy], Shijie zongjiao yanjiu [World Religion Studies], no. 6 (2011), 1-8.100 ‘Weihu shijie heping zuotanhui zai Beijing juxing’ [Forum on Safeguarding World Peace in Beijing], Renmin ribao, 5 June 1985; and Memorandum, Corinne Johnson, ‘Forum on Safeguarding World Peace, Beijing, China, June 3-6, 1985’, 19 June 1985, ‘Safeguarding World Peace, Forum on (CAFIU) 10282’ folder, ID 1985, AFSC.101 Xu Zhicheng, ‘Renmin kewang heping, renmin weihu heping’ [People Desire Peace, and People Safeguard Peace], Renmin ribao, 5 June 1985.102 On the anti-nuclear movement in the United States, see Preston, Sword of the Spirit, Shield of Faith, 590. On the Nuclear Freeze campaign, see Stephanie Freeman, ‘Ronald Reagan and the Nuclear Freeze Movement’, in The Reagan Moment: America and the World in the 1980s, eds. Jonathan R. Hunt and Simon Miles (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2021), 144-62.103 ‘Meeting with CET Staff, Re U.S.-China 1985 Peace Exchange’, 13 February 1985, ‘Safeguarding World Peace, Forum on (CAFIU) 10282’ folder, ID 1985, AFSC.104 ‘Zhongguo renmin zhengqu geping yu caijun xiehui zai Jing chengli’ [The Association of Chinese People Stiving for Peace and Disarmament Was Establishing in Beijing], Renmin ribao, 2 June 1985.105 Harry Harding, A Fragile Relationship: The United States and China since 1972 (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1992), 138-40.106 Xie Yixian, ed., Zhongguo dangdai waijiaoshi [Diplomatic History of Modern China], 1949-2001 (Beijing: Zhongguo,qingnian chubanshe, 2002), 387-9.107 Zhao Ziyang wenji bianjizu, ed., Zhao Ziyang wenji [Collected Works of Zhao Ziyang], 1980-89, vol. 2 (Hong Kong: Zhongwen daxue chubanshe, 2016), 270.108 Hu Yaobang, ‘Quanmian kaichuang shehui zhuyi xiandaihua jianshe de xinjumian’ [Fully Cultivate the New Phase of Socialist Modernization Construction], Renmin ribao, 8 September 1982.109 Memorandum, Asia A. Bennett, ‘China’, 25 May 1989, ‘Tiananmen 10508’ folder, ID 1989, AFSC.110 Memorandum, Joe Volk, ‘Student Uprising in People’s Republic of China’, 25 May 1989, ‘Tiananmen 10508’ folder, ID 1989, AFSC.111 Memorandum, Warren Witte, ‘AFSC Cable to China’, 26 May 1989, ‘Tiananmen 10508’ folder, ID 1989, AFSC.112 Asia A. Bennett, ‘Statement on Events in China’, 5 June 1989, ‘Tiananmen 10508’ folder, ID 1989, AFSC.113 ‘Letter to Han Xu’, June 1989, ‘Tiananmen 10508’ folder, ID 1989, AFSC.114 ‘Letter to George H. W. Bush’, June 1989, ‘Tiananmen 10508’ folder, ID 1989, AFSC.115 Zhang Liang, Perry Link and Andrew J. Nathan, eds., The Tiananmen Papers (New York: Public Affairs, 2001), 447.116 ‘Huang Hua Meets U.S. Visitors’, Xinhua General News Service, 27 October 1990.117 Shi Zhongben to Corinne Johnson, 14 March 1991, ‘China 65001’ folder, ID 1991, AFSC.118 ‘China Summer Brochure, 2004’, undated, available at: https://www.afsc.org/sites/default/files/documents/2004%20China%20Summer%20Brochure.pdf accessed 19 April 2022.119 ‘With AFSC Support, China Finds New Role in Assisting Developing Countries’, 18 October 2010, available at: https://www.afsc.org/story/afsc-support-china-finds-new-role-assisting-developing-countries accessed 19 April 2022.120 ‘Mekong Journey Peacemakers Explore Regional Peace in China’, 24 June 2015, available at: https://www.afsc.org/story/mekong-journey-peacemakers-explore-regional-peace-china accessed 19 April 2022.121 Maral Noori, Daniel Jasper and Jason Tower, ‘Overcoming Barriers to U.S.-China Cooperation’, US Institution of Peace, August 2015, available at: https://www.usip.org/publications/2015/08/overcoming-barriers-us-china-cooperation accessed 19 April 2022.122 Tiffany Barron et al., ‘Engagement Revisited: Progress Made and Lessons Learned from the US-China Strategic and Economic Dialogue’, National Committee on American Foreign Policy, September 2021, available at: https://www.ncafp.org/2016/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/NCAFP_China_Engagement_final_Sept-2021.pdf accessed 19 April 2022; and Mike Pompeo, ‘Communist China and the Free World’s Future’, 23 July 2020, available at: https://2017-2021.state.gov/communist-china-and-the-free-worlds-future-2/index.html accessed 19 April 2022.Additional informationNotes on contributorsBingyi GongBingyi Gong is a Ph. D. candidate at the Osaka School of International Public Policy, Osaka University. She was educated at China Foreign Affairs University, China, and graduated with a Bachelor’s degree of Arts in English and International Studies and a Master’s degree of Arts in Japanese Linguistics and Literature. Bingyi Gong studies the history of US-East Asian relations, currently working on her dissertation project about the US-China technology trade from the 1970s to the 1990s.Kazushi MinamiKazushi Minami is an Associate Professor at the Osaka School of International Public Policy, Osaka University. He earned his Ph.D. in history from the University of Texas at Austin in 2019. His book, People’s Diplomacy: How Americans and Chinese Transformed US-China Relations, is forthcoming from Cornell University Press. His articles have appeared in Cold War History, Diplomatic History, and the Journal of Women’s History.