Competition Among Spacefaring States in the Exploration of ‘Terra Nulius’ in Outer Space: A Neorealist Approach

Abstract

ABSTRACTThis paper aims to explain the competition among spacefaring states in outer space. In contrast to rivalry among great powers on Earth, the competition in space does not merely reflect the situation on Earth. Spacefaring states tend to put their preferences to the most beneficial stakeholders possible. The United States, as the current hegemon in space exploration, has to share its partners on Earth, for instance, the European States, with rival states, such as China. Through a neorealist approach and secondary data collected from various sources, this paper advances that in line with the neorealist assumption, neither ideology nor traditional alliance shapes the international political posture, but rather rational consideration and ability to maximize national interests. In the end, this paper shows that the behavior among states in terms of space exploration related to defence is more varied, unlike the pattern of military competition that occurs on Earth. Choices and changes in the power structure in space are possible based on capability and strategic actions among competing spacefaring states. Disclosure statementNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.Notes1 Freddie Wilkinson, “The History of Space Exploration”, National Geographic, https://www.nationalgeographic.org/article/history-space-exploration/ (accessed November 3, 2022).2 John Hickman, “Research Viewpoint: International Relations and the Second Space Race Between the United States and China,” Astropolitics 17, no. 3 (2019): 178–190.3 Dandy B Bramasta, “NASA Ungkap Penemuan Air di Permukaan Bulan, Apa Artinya?,” Kompas.com, last update October 27, 2020, https://www.kompas.com/tren/read/2020/10/27/192900665/nasa-ungkap-penemuan-air-di-permukaan-bulan-apa-artinya-?page=all (accessed December 20, 2022).4 “Chapter 5. Crowding and Competition in Space,” Global Risks Report 2022, World Economic Forum, last modified January 11, 2022, https://www.weforum.org/reports/global-risks-report-2022/in-full/chapter-5-crowding-and-competition-in-space (accessed November 3, 2022).5 Hickman, “Research Viewpoint,” 178–179.6 Rubab Nawaz, Asma Bilal & Maria Rehman, “United States-China Space Offensive: A Dangerous Competition” Astropolitics 20, no. 1 (2022): 27–42.7 Everett C Dolman, Astropolitik: Classical Geopolitics in the Space Age, 1st ed (Routledge, 2001).8 Ajey Lele, Asian Space Race: Rhetoric or Reality? (India: Springer India, 2013).9 Ajey Lele, “Space Security Dilemma: India and China” Astropolitics 17, no. 1 (2019): 23–37.10 Nils Holger Schreiber, “Man, State, and War in Space: Neorealism and Russia’s Counterbalancing Strategy Against the United States in Outer Space Security Politics” Astropolitics 20, no. 2–3 (2022): 151–174.11 “Space Law Treaties and Principles,” International Space Law: United Nations Instruments, United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), 2017, https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties.html, (accessed November 20, 2022).12 Trevor Brown, “Space and the Sea: Strategic Considerations for the Commons” Astropolitics 10, no. 3 (2012): 234–247.13 Ibid.14 Andrew Jones, “China Says It’s Open to Sharing Moon Rocks as Chang’e 5 Samples Head to the Lab,” Space.com, last modified December 24, 2020, https://www.space.com/china-sharing-chang-e-5-moon-samples (accessed November 1, 2022).15 National Security Council Report, “Statement of Preliminary US Policy on Outer Space”, Foreign Relations of The United States, 1958–1960, United Nations And General International Matters, Volume II, Washington, August 18, 1958, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1958-60v02/d442 (accessed November 2, 2022).16 David Caesar Wani, “The Struggle for Power, Profits and Prestige in the International System,” Modern Diplomacy, March 13, 2020, https://moderndiplomacy.eu/2020/03/13/the-struggle-for-power-profits-and-prestige-in-the-international-system/ (accessed October 20, 2022).17 Kenneth N. Waltz, “Theory of International Politics” (Waveland Press: 1979).18 Mearsheimer, op. cit.19 “Countries with Space Programs 2023,” World Population Review, https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/countries-with-space-programs (accessed January 30, 2023).20 John J Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics (New York: Norton, 2001).21 Jack S Levy, “What do Great Powers Balance Against and When?” in Balance of Power : Theory and Practice in the 21st Century, eds. T. V., Paul, James J., Wirtz, and Michel Fortmann (California: Stanford University Press, 2004).22 Statement of Lord Palmerston 1784–1865, British statesman; Prime Minister, 1855–8, 1859–65, in Susan Ratcliffe, Oxford Essential Quotations, 4th ed (Oxford University Press, 2016) https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780191826719.001.0001/q-oro-ed4–00008130;jsessionid=AE6BA3D9D29261BDA499D1EFABCF3B96 (accessed November 18, 2022).23 Hickman, “Research Viewpoint,” op. cit.