‘We Must Analyse Where Our National Interest Lies and not Worry too Much about Other People’s Domestic Policies’: Richard M. Nixon and Apartheid South Africa in the Early 1970s

IF 0.4 3区历史学 Q1 HISTORY

South African Historical Journal Pub Date : 2023-10-25 DOI:10.1080/02582473.2023.2266593

Eddie Michel

{"title":"‘We Must Analyse Where Our National Interest Lies and not Worry too Much about Other People’s Domestic Policies’: Richard M. Nixon and Apartheid South Africa in the Early 1970s","authors":"Eddie Michel","doi":"10.1080/02582473.2023.2266593","DOIUrl":null,"url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACTThis article explores the pragmatic stance that the United States adopted, during the Nixon era, regarding relations with Pretoria. The Nixon administration believed that Washington needed to prioritise the protection of its own strategic and commercial interests and not become overly concerned about the domestic agenda of its global partners. The vehement anti-communism of the National Party government combined with a profitable economic relationship and the abundant mineral resources of the apartheid state dictated a need on practical grounds for closer ties with South Africa. This stance was further reinforced by Nixon’s contempt for sub-Saharan Africans and lack of interest in achieving racial justice.KEYWORDS: Richard NixonUS foreign policyUS historySouth AfricaCold Wareconomic historyrace relations Notes1 Richard Nixon Library (hereafter NL), NSC Institutional ‘H’ Files, Box H-026, NSSM-39, Memo from Kissinger to Rogers et al., 10 April 1969; NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-144, NSSM-39, 15 August 1969; NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-145, NSSM-39, Memo from Kissinger to Vice President et al., 28 January 1970; E. Michel, ‘The Luster of Chrome: Nixon, Rhodesia and the Defiance of UN Sanctions’, Diplomatic History, 42, 1 (2018), 14.2 J. Gaddis, Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of American National Security Policy during the Cold War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005); N. Mitchell, ‘Terrorists or Freedom Fighters? Jimmy Carter and Rhodesia’, in S. Onslow ed., Cold War in Southern Africa: White Power Black Liberation (London: Routledge, 2012); N. Mitchell, ‘The Cold War and Jimmy Carter’, in M. Leffler and O. A. Westad, eds, The Cambridge History of the Cold War, iii: Endings (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 66–88; E. Schmidt, Foreign Intervention in Africa: From the Cold War to the War on Terror (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013); O. Westad, The Global Cold War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007).3 A. DeRoche, Black, White and Chrome: The United States and Zimbabwe, 1953–1998 (Trenton: Africa World Press, 2001); G. Horne, From the Barrel of a Gun: The United States and the War against Zimbabwe (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001); M. A. Lawrence, ‘Containing Globalism: The United States and the Developing World in the 1970s’, in N. Ferguson, C. S. Maier, E. Manela, and D. J. Sargent, eds, The Shock of the Global: The 1970s in Perspective (Cambridge: Belknap Press, 2010), 205–222; R. Litwak, Détente and the Nixon Doctrine: American Foreign Policy and the Pursuit of Stability, 1969–1976 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986); C. Saunders, ‘The Cold War and Southern Africa, 1976–1990’, in M. Leffler and O. A. Westad, eds, The Cambridge History of the Cold War, iii: Endings (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 222–243; Schmidt, Foreign Intervention in Africa; J. Suri, ‘Henry Kissinger and the Geopolitics of Globalization’, in N. Ferguson, C. S. Maier, E. Manela, and D. J. Sargent, eds, The Shock of the Global: The 1970s in Perspective (Cambridge: Belknap Press, 2010), 173–188; Westad, The Global Cold War.4 T. Borstelmann, Apartheid’s Reluctant Uncle: The United States and Southern Africa in the Early Cold War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993); H. Davis, Jr., ‘US Policy toward South Africa: A Dissenting View’, in R. Lemarchand, ed., American Policy in Southern Africa: The Stakes and the Stance (2nd edition, Washington: University Press of America, 1981), 309–340; W. Foltz, ‘US Policy toward Southern Africa: Economic and Strategic Constraints’, in R. Lemarchand, ed., The Stakes and the Stance (2nd edition, Washington: University Press of America, 1981), 283–285; D. Gibbs, The Political Economy of Third World Intervention: Mines, Money and US Policy in the Congo Crisis (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991).5 M. Franczak, Global Inequality and American Foreign Policy in the 1970s (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2022); Westad, The Global Cold War.6 P. Lauren, Power and Prejudice: The Politics and Diplomacy of Racial Discrimination (Boulder: Westview Press, 1996); W. Minter, King Solomon’s Mines Revisited: Western Interests and the Burdened History of Southern Africa (New York: Basic Books,1986); M. Cotey Morgan, ‘The Seventies and the Rebirth of Human Rights’, in N. Ferguson, C. S. Maier, E. Manela, and D. J. Sargent, eds, The Shock of the Global: The 1970s in Perspective (Cambridge: Belknap Press, 2010), 237–250; S. Moyn, The Last Utopia: Human Rights in History (Cambridge: Belknap Press, 2010); C. Watts, ‘“Dropping the F-Bomb’: President Ford, the Rhodesian Crisis, and the 1976 Election’, Paper presented at the 2014 Society for Historians of American Foreign Relations Conference, Lexington, Kentucky.7 T. Borstelmann, The Cold War and the Color Line: American Race Relations in the Global Arena (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001); DeRoche, Black, White and Chrome; A. DeRoche, ‘Relations with Africa since 1900’, in R. D. Schulzinger, ed., A Companion to American Foreign Relations (Malden: Blackwell, 2006), 117; R. Massie, Loosing the Bonds: The United States and South Africa in the Apartheid Years (New York: Nan A. Talese, 1997); T. Noer, Cold War and Black Liberation: The United States and White Rule in Africa, 1948–1968 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1985); B. Plummer, Rising Wind: Black Americans and US Foreign Affairs, 1935–1960 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996); P. von Eschen, Race against Empire: Black Americans and Anticolonialism, 1937–1957 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997).8 Horne, From the Barrel of a Gun; E. Morgan, ‘Our Own Interests; Nixon, South Africa and Dissent at Home and Abroad’, Diplomacy and Statecraft, 17, 3 (2006), 475–495.9 F. Logevall and A. Preston, eds, Nixon and the World: American Foreign Relations, 1969–1977 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008).10 A. Lake, The ‘Tar Baby’ Option: American Policy toward Southern Rhodesia (New York: Columbia University Press, 1976); A. Thomson, US Foreign Policy towards Apartheid South Africa, 1948–1994: Conflict of Interests (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008).11 Harry S. Truman Library (hereafter TL), Papers of Harry S. Truman (hereafter Truman papers), Box 177, President’s Secretary’s Files, NSC Meetings, 17 June 1948, CIA Review; TL, Truman papers, Box 170, President’s Secretary’s Files, National Security Policies, Vol. I Geographical Areas, NSC Report on the Current Policies of the United States of America Relating to the National Security; Foreign Relations of the United States (hereafter FRUS), 1948, Vol. V, Part 1, Policy Statement of the Department of State, 1 November 1948; Nelson Mandela Centre of Memory, The Heart of Hope Padraig O’Malley Archive, Population Registration Act No 30, Apartheid Legislation 1948–1990; University of the Witwatersrand, Historical Papers Research Archive, Group Areas Act (Act No. 41 of 1950) Records, ZA HPRA A1485, Union of South Africa Act, No. 41 1950; TL, Joseph D. Sweeney Papers (hereafter Sweeney papers), Union of South Africa File, Parliamentary Legislation Box 3, Union of South Africa Act No. 55, 1949; TL, Sweeney papers, Union of South Africa File, Parliamentary Legislation Box 3, Union of South Africa Act No. 21, 1950; D. Aikman, Great Souls: Six Who Changed the Century (Lanham: Lexington Books, 2003), 81; T. Davenport, South Africa: A Modern History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1977), 253.12 TL, Truman papers, National Intelligence Estimate, President’s Secretary’s Files, Central Intelligence Reports, Box 215, The Political Situation in the Union of South Africa, 31 January 1949; TL, Dean Acheson Papers (hereafter Acheson papers), Memoranda of Conversations File October 1952, Box 71, Memorandum of Conversation, 14 October 1952; FRUS, 1952–1954, Volume XI, Part 1, Editorial Note.13 Lyndon Baines Johnson Library (hereafter LBJL), Papers of Lyndon Baines Johnson, Box 73, South Africa, CIA National Intelligence Estimate, 20 May 1964; LBJL, National Security Files (hereafter NSF), Box 78, South Africa, 11/64–9/66, Vol. 2, CIA Special Report, 3 September 1965; Gerald R. Ford Library (hereafter GFL), White House Central Files (hereafter WHCF), Box 45, South Africa 6/1/75–11/30/75, Briefing Memorandum for Ford.14 TL, Truman papers, President’s Secretary’s File’s, Box 150, Foreign Affairs, Department of State Report: The Berlin Crisis; R. M. Byrnes, South Africa: A Country Study (Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1997), 338; FRUS, 1951, Vol. V, Secretary of State to South African Ambassador, 5 February 1951; FRUS, 1951, Vol. V, Consul General Johannesburg to the Department of State, 19 April 1951; Borstelmann, Apartheid’s Reluctant Uncle, 4, 50, 81; E. Michel, ‘“My Children, You Are Permitted in Time of Great Danger to Walk with the Devil until You Have Crossed the Bridge”: President Truman, Apartheid and the Early Cold War’, South African Historical Journal, 72, 2 (2020) 2, 25–26.15 John F. Kennedy Library (hereafter KL), John F. Kennedy Papers (hereafter Kennedy papers), Box 2, NSF, Africa General 8/61, Guidelines for US policy towards the Republic of South Africa, 19 July 1961; KL, Kennedy papers, Box 2, NSF, Africa General 5/62, Department of State Guidelines for Policy and Operations Republic of South Africa, May 1962; KL, Kennedy papers, Box 159A, NSF, South Africa-General, Department of State National Strategy Series-South Africa, 28 October 1963; FRUS, 1964–1968, Vol. XXIV, Africa National Security Action Memorandum (hereafter NSAM), No. 295, 24 April 1964; E. Michel, ‘“Since We Can’t now Bet on a Winner, We Should Be Hedging Our Bets and Buying Time”: President John F. Kennedy, Domestic Racial Equality and Apartheid South Africa in the Early 1960s’, Safundi 22, 4 (2022), 1–2; E. Michel, ‘“You Haven’t Been too Horrible to Us Recently”: Lyndon B. Johnson and Apartheid South Africa’, Diplomacy and Statecraft, 32, 4 (2021), 743–744.16 Horne, From the Barrel of a Gun, 7; Michel, ‘The Luster of Chrome’, 8; R. Nixon, The Memoirs of Richard Nixon (New York: Grosset and Dunlap, 1978) 439–440.17 H. Kissinger, White House Years (London: Simon and Schuster, 1979), 69; M. Lawrence, ‘Containing Globalism: The United States and the Developing World in the 1970s’, in N. Ferguson, C. S. Maier, E. Manela, and D. J. Sargent, eds, The Shock of the Global: The 1970s in Perspective (Cambridge: Belknap Press, 2010), 209–210; Michel, ‘The Luster of Chrome’, 8; J. Suri, ‘Henry Kissinger and the Geopolitics of Globalization’, in N. Ferguson, C. S. Maier, E. Manela, and D. J. Sargent, eds, The Shock of the Global: The 1970s in Perspective (Cambridge: Belknap Press, 2010), 173–184.18 NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-145, NSSM 39, Minutes of NSC Meeting, 17 December 1969; FRUS, Vol. 28, 1969–1976, Paper prepared by the NSC Departmental Group for Africa, 9 December 1969; FRUS, Vol. 28, 11969–1976, Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, March 1972.19 TL, Acheson papers, Box 68, MemCon File, MemCon, 20 April 1951; NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-145, NSSM-39 3 of 3 (2 of 4), Briefing by CIA Director Richard Helms, 17 December 1969; FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. E-5, Part 1, 1969–1972, Office of National Estimates Memorandum, 13 March 1969; FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. E-5, Part 1, 1969–1972, CIA Special Report, 20 June 1969; FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. E-5, Part 1, 1969–1972, Office of National Estimates Memorandum, 23 March 1971; FRUS, Vol. 28, 1969–1976, Paper prepared in the Bureau of African Affairs, undated; Michel, ‘My Children’, 17–19.20 FRUS, Vol. 28, 1969–1976, Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, 9 December 1969; NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-145, NSSM 39, Minutes of NSC Meeting, 17 December 1969; FRUS, Vol. 28, 1969–1976, Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, March 1972.21 KL, Kennedy papers, Box 2, NSF, Africa General 5/62, Department of State Guidelines for Policy and Operations Republic of South Africa, May 1962; FRUS, Vol. 28, 1969–1976, Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, 9 December 1969; FRUS, Vol. 28, 1969–1976, Memorandum from Guhin to Kissinger, 19 November 1971; FRUS, Vol. 28, 1969–1976, Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, March 1972.22 FRUS, Vol. 28, 1969–1976, From Hughes to Rogers, June 24, 1969; NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-145, NSSM-39 3 of 3 (2 of 4), Briefing by CIA Director Richard Helms, 17 December 1969.23 FRUS, Vol. 28, 1969–1976, From Hughes to Rogers, June 24, 1969; NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-145, NSSM-39 3 of 3 (2 of 4), Briefing by CIA Director Richard Helms, 17 December 1969.24 NL, WHCF, Box 63, CO 135 South Africa, Republic of (1969–70) Paper to Henry A. Kissinger from Dean Acheson, 30 April 969; NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-145, NSSM 39, Minutes of NSC Meeting, 17 December 1969; FRUS, Vol. 28, 1969–1976, Conversation between Nixon and Kissinger, 6 October 1971; D. Brinkley, Dean Acheson: The Cold War Years 1953–1971 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992), 316–327; J. Crespino, Strom Thurmond’s America (New York: Hill and Wang, 2013), 71, 193; E. Michel, The White House and White Africa: Presidential Policy towards Rhodesia during the UDI Era of 1965–79 (New York: Routledge, 2018) 133–134.25 FRUS, 1969–1976, Southern Africa, Vol. 28, Conversation between Nixon and Kissinger, 6 October 197; GFL, General (1), Box 3, Stanley S. Scott Papers, 1971–1977, Black Caucus – Meeting with the President, August 1974, Washington Post, 13 August 1974; Horne, From the Barrel of a Gun, 7, 65.26 FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Conversation between Nixon and Kissinger, 28 September 1971; Kissinger, White House Years, 69; Suri, ‘Henry Kissinger and the Geopolitics of Globalization’, 186.27 NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-144, NSSM-393 of 3 (1 of 4), Memorandum for Nixon from Kissinger, 3 April 1969; Kissinger, White House Years, 65; Lake, The ‘Tar Baby’ Option, 124.28 NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-144, NSSM-393 of 3 (1 of 4), Memorandum for Nixon from Kissinger, 3 April 1969.29 NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-144, NSSM-392 of 3 (1 of 2), NSC Interdisciplinary Group for Africa, Study in Response to NSSM 39, 15 August 1969.30 NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-144, NSSM-392 of 3 (1 of 2), NSC Interdisciplinary Group for Africa, Study in Response to NSSM 39, 15 August 1969.31 NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-144, NSSM-392 of 3 (1 of 2), NSC Interdisciplinary Group for Africa, Study in Response to NSSM 39, 15 August 1969; NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-145, NSSM-393 of 3 (4 of 4), NSC Review Group Meeting, Southern Africa (NSSM 39), 16 October 1969.32 NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-145, NSSM-393 of 3 (4 of 4), NSC Review Group Meeting, Southern Africa (NSSM 39), 16 October 1969; NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Boz H-026, Southern Africa (NSSM 39) (3 of 3), Issues for Decision, NSC Meeting, 17 December 1969.33 NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-145, NSSM-393 of 3 (4 of 4), NSC Review Group Meeting, Southern Africa (NSSM 39), 16 October 1969; NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Boz H-026, Southern Africa (NSSM 39) (3 of 3), Issues for Decision, NSC Meeting, 17 December 1969.34 NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Boz H-026, Southern Africa (NSSM 39) (3 of 3), Issues for Decision, NSC Meeting, 17 December 1969; NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-026, Southern Africa (NSSM 39) (3 of 3), Memorandum for Nixon from Stans, 12 December 1969; NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-145 NSSM-39 3 of 3 (2 of 4), Minutes of NSC Meeting, 17 December 1969.35 NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-145 NSSM-39 3 of 3 (2 of 4), Minutes of NSC Meeting, 17 December 1969.36 NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-145, NSSM-39 3 of 3 (2 of 4), Memo from Kissinger to Agnew et al., 28 January 1970.37 NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-145, NSSM-39 3 of 3 (2 of 4), Memo from Kissinger to Agnew et al., 28 January 1970.38 Archives of the South Africa Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Countries, 1/33/3, Vol. 16, USA Relations with South Africa, Memorandum from Taswell to Muller, 11 June 1970; NL, WHCF, Box 65, CO 135: Republic of South Africa, Memorandum from Kissinger to Nixon, 24 August 1970.39 NL, WHCF, Box 65, CO 135: Republic of South Africa, Memorandum from Kissinger to Nixon, 24 August 1970.40 FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Telegram from the State Department to Consulate General Cape Town, 14 May 1971; Michel, ‘You Haven’t Been too Horrible’, 750; Morgan, ‘Our Own Interests’, 477.41 National Archives and Records Administration, General Record of the Department of State, Political and Defense Record Group 59, Subject Numerical Files, 1970–1973, Box 2578, Pol 15-1 SAFR, Telegram from Hurd to Department of State, 2 August 1973; Morgan, ‘Our Own Interests’, 478.42 KL, Papers of Harlan Cleveland, Box 98, South Africa and Apartheid, 7/63–8/63, Statement by Stevenson to the United Nations Security Council (UNSC), 2 August 1963; NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-208, NSDM 81, Memo from Kissinger to Agnew et al., 17 August 1970.43 NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-208, NSDM 81, Memo from Kissinger to Agnew et al., 17 August 1970.44 NL, National Security Council Institutional (‘H’) Files, Study Memorandums (1969–1974), Box H-144, NSSM-39 2 of 3 (2 of 2), Memorandum for Kissinger from Stans, 16 April 1970; FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Telegram from Rogers to Department of State, 12 July 1970; NL, National Security Council Institutional (‘H’) Files, Policy Papers (1969–1974, Box H-213, NSDM 38: Records of the Staff Secretary NSDM Working Files, Memorandum from Kissinger to Nixon, 10 August 1970; NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-208, NSDM 81, Memo from Kissinger to Agnew et al., 17 August 1970.45 NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-208, NSDM 81, Memo from Kissinger to Agnew et al., 17 August 1970; FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28 Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, March 1972.46 NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-208, NSDM 81, Memorandum from Kissinger to Agnew et al., 17 August 1970; FRUS, Vol. 28, Memorandum from Johnson to Packard, 18 November 1970; FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28 Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, March 1972.47 FRUS, Vol. 28, 1969–1976, Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, 9 December 1969; FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, from Kissinger to Nixon, 23 December 1969.48 FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, from Kissinger to Nixon, 23 December 1969.49 FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, from Kissinger to Nixon, 23 December 1969.50 FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, from Kissinger to Nixon, 23 December 1969; ‘US Imperialism and the Southern African Liberation Movement’, Sechaba, 4, 5 (1970), 11–13.51 Michel, ‘You Haven’t Been too Horrible’, 753–754.52 National Security Archive, from James G. Poor, Director, Division of International Security Affairs, US Atomic Energy Commission, to Chairman Ray et al., 2 October 1974, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB181/sa08.pdf; J. Richelson, Spying on the Bomb: American Nuclear Intelligence from Nazi Germany to Iran and North Korea (New York: W. W. Norton, 2006), 244, 270.53 Z. Cervenka and B. Rogers, The Nuclear Axis: Secret Collaboration between West Germany and South Africa (London: Julian Friedmann Books, 1978) 274–275; Richelson, Spying on the Bomb, 263.54 FRUS, 1969–1976, Southern Africa, Vol. 28, Memorandum from Hormats and Wright to Kissinger, 24 January 1972.55 FRUS, 1969–1976, Southern Africa, Vol. 28, Memorandum from Guhin to Kissinger, 19 November 1971; FRUS, 1969–1976, Southern Africa, Vol. 28, Memorandum from Hormats and Wright to Kissinger, 24 January 1972; FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, March 1972.56 FRUS, 1969–1976, Southern Africa, Vol. 28, Memorandum from Guhin to Kissinger, 19 November 1971; FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, March 1972.57 FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Memorandum from Kissinger to Flanigan, 14 July 1973; Thomson, US Foreign Policy towards Apartheid South Africa, 57, 77.58 LBJL, NSF, Box 4, NSAM, No. 295, 24 April 1964; FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, March 1972; Thomson, US Foreign Policy towards Apartheid South Africa, 78.59 FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, March 1972; FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Memorandum from Kissinger to Flanigan, 14 July 1973; Thomson, US Foreign Policy towards Apartheid South Africa, 78.60 FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, March 1972; Thomson, US Foreign Policy towards Apartheid South Africa, 78.61 FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Memorandum from Newsom and Stevenson to Rogers, 17 February 1971; FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, March 1972.62 FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Memorandum from Newsom and Stevenson to Rogers, 17 February 1971; FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, March 1972.63 FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Memorandum from Newsom and Stevenson to Rogers, 17 February 1971; FRUS 1969–1976, Vol. E-5, Part 1, 1969–1972, US Foreign Policy for the 1970s, The Emerging Structure of Peace: A Report to the Congress by Nixon, 9 February 1972; ‘The Stealthy American’, Sechaba, August 1972, https://www.sahistory.org.za/archive/sechaba-volume-6-number-8-august-1972; Thomson, US Foreign Policy towards Apartheid South Africa, 78.64 FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Memorandum from Newsom and Stevenson to Rogers, 17 February 1971; FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Memorandum from Kissinger to Flanigan, 14 July 1973.65 The National Archives, London, PREM, 13/545, From Salisbury to Commonwealth Relations Office, No. 1707, 11 November 1965; LBJL, NSF, Box 97, Rhodesia, Vol. 2, UNSC Resolution 232, as attachment to letter from Rostow to Johnson, 31 December 1968; LBJL, NSF, Box 97, Rhodesia, Vol. 2, UNSC Resolution 253, as attachment to letter from Rostow to Johnson, 31 December 1968.66 Cory Library, Rhodesia-Zimbabwe Papers, Box 2006 A, Cabinet Memoranda 1966 42–108, Ministry of Defence Memo, 12 February 1966; LBJL, NSF, Box 97, Rhodesia, Vol. 2, Rhodesia-Zambia SitRep, 18 February 1966; Michel, The White House and White Africa, 55–58.67 LBJL, NSF, Box 97, Rhodesia, Vol. 2, CIA Intelligence Memo, 9 December 1966; LBJL, NSF, Box 97, Rhodesia, Vol. 2, CIA Intelligence Memo, June 1968; LBJL, NSF, Box 97, Rhodesia, Vol. 2, UNSC Resolution 232, as attachment to letter from Rostow to Johnson, 31 December 1968; LBJL, NSF, Box 97, Rhodesia, Vol. 2, UNSC Resolution 253, as attachment to letter from Rostow to Johnson, 31 December 1968; Michel, The White House and White Africa, 42, 48, 52–53, 81–82, 89–90.68 NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-144, NSSM-392 of 3 (1 of 2), NSC Interdisciplinary Group for Africa, Study in Response to NSSM 39, 15 August 1969; Michel, ‘The Luster of Chrome’, 12.69 NL, NSC Country Files, Box 743, Rhodesia (1969–1970), Statement of J. Clayton Stephenson, President, Mining and Metals Division, Union Carbide Corporation, 31 October 1969; NL, NSC Country Files, Box 743, Rhodesia (1969–1970), Statement L. G. Bliss, Chairman of the Board and President of Foote Mineral Company, 31 October 1969; NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-214, NSDM 47, Memorandum from Stans to Nixon, 15 May 1970; Michel, ‘The Luster of Chrome’, 8–9.70 NL, NSC Country Files, Box 743, Rhodesia (1969–1970), Memorandum from Davis Jr. to Kissinger, 24 December 1969; NL, WHCF, Box 63, CO 124 Rhodesia 5/1/70–8/31/70, Letter from Eastland to Mollenoff, 19 March 1970; NL, NSC Country Files, Box 743, Rhodesia Vol. 2 (1969–1970), Letter from Thurmond to Nixon, 15 April 1970; FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, from Kissinger to the Vice President et al., 7 August 1970; NL, NSC Country Files, Box 743, Rhodesia, Vol. 2 (1969–1970), Memorandum from Kissinger to Nixon, 16 November 1971; DeRoche, Black, White and Chrome, 170, 201–202; Horne, From the Barrel of a Gun, 151, 180–181; Michel, ‘The Luster of Chrome’, 15–21.71 NL, NSC Country Files, Box 743, Rhodesia, Vol. 2 (1970–1974), Memorandum from Wright to Kissinger, 27 November 1971; NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-188, Memorandum from Newsom to Kissinger, 22 December 1971; Michel, The White House and White Africa, 151–157.72 FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, 2 April 1970; FRUS, 1969–1976, Southern Africa, Vol. 28, Intelligence note from the Bureau of Intelligence and Research, 9 March 1971.73 FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, 2 April 1970; FRUS, 1969–1976, Southern Africa, Vol. 28, Intelligence note from the Bureau of Intelligence and Research, 9 March 1971.74 FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, 2 April 1970; Michel, ‘You Haven’t Been too Horrible’, 756–758.75 NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-207, NSSM 89, Memo from Kissinger to Secretary of State Rogers et al., 12 February 1970; FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, 2 April 1970.76 FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, National Security Decision Memorandum 55, 22 May 1970.77 FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, 2 April 1970; FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Memorandum from Kissinger to Nixon, 15 April 1970; NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-208, NSDM 55, Memo from Kissinger to Vice President Agnew et al., 17 April 1970; FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Memorandum from U. Alexis Johnson to Nixon, 6 July 1970; Thomson, US Foreign Policy towards Apartheid South Africa, 72.Additional informationNotes on contributorsEddie MichelEddie Michel joined the Department of Historical and Heritage Studies at the University of Pretoria as a Research Fellow in April 2017. His current research interests lie in the field of US policy towards South Africa during the apartheid era. His broader areas of research include US foreign policy, US history, and the Cold War in southern Africa. He is the author of The White House and White Africa: Presidential Policy toward Rhodesia during the UDI era of 1965–79, which was published by Routledge in 2018. His research has been recognised and funded by the Harry S. Truman, Lyndon B. Johnson, and Gerald R. Ford Presidential Foundations. Eddie Michel is also an Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. Fellow of the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library.","PeriodicalId":45116,"journal":{"name":"South African Historical Journal","volume":"138 7","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.4000,"publicationDate":"2023-10-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":"0","resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":null,"PeriodicalName":"South African Historical Journal","FirstCategoryId":"1085","ListUrlMain":"https://doi.org/10.1080/02582473.2023.2266593","RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"历史学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":null,"EPubDate":"","PubModel":"","JCR":"Q1","JCRName":"HISTORY","Score":null,"Total":0}

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Abstract

ABSTRACTThis article explores the pragmatic stance that the United States adopted, during the Nixon era, regarding relations with Pretoria. The Nixon administration believed that Washington needed to prioritise the protection of its own strategic and commercial interests and not become overly concerned about the domestic agenda of its global partners. The vehement anti-communism of the National Party government combined with a profitable economic relationship and the abundant mineral resources of the apartheid state dictated a need on practical grounds for closer ties with South Africa. This stance was further reinforced by Nixon’s contempt for sub-Saharan Africans and lack of interest in achieving racial justice.KEYWORDS: Richard NixonUS foreign policyUS historySouth AfricaCold Wareconomic historyrace relations Notes1 Richard Nixon Library (hereafter NL), NSC Institutional ‘H’ Files, Box H-026, NSSM-39, Memo from Kissinger to Rogers et al., 10 April 1969; NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-144, NSSM-39, 15 August 1969; NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-145, NSSM-39, Memo from Kissinger to Vice President et al., 28 January 1970; E. Michel, ‘The Luster of Chrome: Nixon, Rhodesia and the Defiance of UN Sanctions’, Diplomatic History, 42, 1 (2018), 14.2 J. Gaddis, Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of American National Security Policy during the Cold War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005); N. Mitchell, ‘Terrorists or Freedom Fighters? Jimmy Carter and Rhodesia’, in S. Onslow ed., Cold War in Southern Africa: White Power Black Liberation (London: Routledge, 2012); N. Mitchell, ‘The Cold War and Jimmy Carter’, in M. Leffler and O. A. Westad, eds, The Cambridge History of the Cold War, iii: Endings (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 66–88; E. Schmidt, Foreign Intervention in Africa: From the Cold War to the War on Terror (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013); O. Westad, The Global Cold War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007).3 A. DeRoche, Black, White and Chrome: The United States and Zimbabwe, 1953–1998 (Trenton: Africa World Press, 2001); G. Horne, From the Barrel of a Gun: The United States and the War against Zimbabwe (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001); M. A. Lawrence, ‘Containing Globalism: The United States and the Developing World in the 1970s’, in N. Ferguson, C. S. Maier, E. Manela, and D. J. Sargent, eds, The Shock of the Global: The 1970s in Perspective (Cambridge: Belknap Press, 2010), 205–222; R. Litwak, Détente and the Nixon Doctrine: American Foreign Policy and the Pursuit of Stability, 1969–1976 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986); C. Saunders, ‘The Cold War and Southern Africa, 1976–1990’, in M. Leffler and O. A. Westad, eds, The Cambridge History of the Cold War, iii: Endings (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 222–243; Schmidt, Foreign Intervention in Africa; J. Suri, ‘Henry Kissinger and the Geopolitics of Globalization’, in N. Ferguson, C. S. Maier, E. Manela, and D. J. Sargent, eds, The Shock of the Global: The 1970s in Perspective (Cambridge: Belknap Press, 2010), 173–188; Westad, The Global Cold War.4 T. Borstelmann, Apartheid’s Reluctant Uncle: The United States and Southern Africa in the Early Cold War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993); H. Davis, Jr., ‘US Policy toward South Africa: A Dissenting View’, in R. Lemarchand, ed., American Policy in Southern Africa: The Stakes and the Stance (2nd edition, Washington: University Press of America, 1981), 309–340; W. Foltz, ‘US Policy toward Southern Africa: Economic and Strategic Constraints’, in R. Lemarchand, ed., The Stakes and the Stance (2nd edition, Washington: University Press of America, 1981), 283–285; D. Gibbs, The Political Economy of Third World Intervention: Mines, Money and US Policy in the Congo Crisis (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991).5 M. Franczak, Global Inequality and American Foreign Policy in the 1970s (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2022); Westad, The Global Cold War.6 P. Lauren, Power and Prejudice: The Politics and Diplomacy of Racial Discrimination (Boulder: Westview Press, 1996); W. Minter, King Solomon’s Mines Revisited: Western Interests and the Burdened History of Southern Africa (New York: Basic Books,1986); M. Cotey Morgan, ‘The Seventies and the Rebirth of Human Rights’, in N. Ferguson, C. S. Maier, E. Manela, and D. J. Sargent, eds, The Shock of the Global: The 1970s in Perspective (Cambridge: Belknap Press, 2010), 237–250; S. Moyn, The Last Utopia: Human Rights in History (Cambridge: Belknap Press, 2010); C. Watts, ‘“Dropping the F-Bomb’: President Ford, the Rhodesian Crisis, and the 1976 Election’, Paper presented at the 2014 Society for Historians of American Foreign Relations Conference, Lexington, Kentucky.7 T. Borstelmann, The Cold War and the Color Line: American Race Relations in the Global Arena (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001); DeRoche, Black, White and Chrome; A. DeRoche, ‘Relations with Africa since 1900’, in R. D. Schulzinger, ed., A Companion to American Foreign Relations (Malden: Blackwell, 2006), 117; R. Massie, Loosing the Bonds: The United States and South Africa in the Apartheid Years (New York: Nan A. Talese, 1997); T. Noer, Cold War and Black Liberation: The United States and White Rule in Africa, 1948–1968 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1985); B. Plummer, Rising Wind: Black Americans and US Foreign Affairs, 1935–1960 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996); P. von Eschen, Race against Empire: Black Americans and Anticolonialism, 1937–1957 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997).8 Horne, From the Barrel of a Gun; E. Morgan, ‘Our Own Interests; Nixon, South Africa and Dissent at Home and Abroad’, Diplomacy and Statecraft, 17, 3 (2006), 475–495.9 F. Logevall and A. Preston, eds, Nixon and the World: American Foreign Relations, 1969–1977 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008).10 A. Lake, The ‘Tar Baby’ Option: American Policy toward Southern Rhodesia (New York: Columbia University Press, 1976); A. Thomson, US Foreign Policy towards Apartheid South Africa, 1948–1994: Conflict of Interests (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008).11 Harry S. Truman Library (hereafter TL), Papers of Harry S. Truman (hereafter Truman papers), Box 177, President’s Secretary’s Files, NSC Meetings, 17 June 1948, CIA Review; TL, Truman papers, Box 170, President’s Secretary’s Files, National Security Policies, Vol. I Geographical Areas, NSC Report on the Current Policies of the United States of America Relating to the National Security; Foreign Relations of the United States (hereafter FRUS), 1948, Vol. V, Part 1, Policy Statement of the Department of State, 1 November 1948; Nelson Mandela Centre of Memory, The Heart of Hope Padraig O’Malley Archive, Population Registration Act No 30, Apartheid Legislation 1948–1990; University of the Witwatersrand, Historical Papers Research Archive, Group Areas Act (Act No. 41 of 1950) Records, ZA HPRA A1485, Union of South Africa Act, No. 41 1950; TL, Joseph D. Sweeney Papers (hereafter Sweeney papers), Union of South Africa File, Parliamentary Legislation Box 3, Union of South Africa Act No. 55, 1949; TL, Sweeney papers, Union of South Africa File, Parliamentary Legislation Box 3, Union of South Africa Act No. 21, 1950; D. Aikman, Great Souls: Six Who Changed the Century (Lanham: Lexington Books, 2003), 81; T. Davenport, South Africa: A Modern History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1977), 253.12 TL, Truman papers, National Intelligence Estimate, President’s Secretary’s Files, Central Intelligence Reports, Box 215, The Political Situation in the Union of South Africa, 31 January 1949; TL, Dean Acheson Papers (hereafter Acheson papers), Memoranda of Conversations File October 1952, Box 71, Memorandum of Conversation, 14 October 1952; FRUS, 1952–1954, Volume XI, Part 1, Editorial Note.13 Lyndon Baines Johnson Library (hereafter LBJL), Papers of Lyndon Baines Johnson, Box 73, South Africa, CIA National Intelligence Estimate, 20 May 1964; LBJL, National Security Files (hereafter NSF), Box 78, South Africa, 11/64–9/66, Vol. 2, CIA Special Report, 3 September 1965; Gerald R. Ford Library (hereafter GFL), White House Central Files (hereafter WHCF), Box 45, South Africa 6/1/75–11/30/75, Briefing Memorandum for Ford.14 TL, Truman papers, President’s Secretary’s File’s, Box 150, Foreign Affairs, Department of State Report: The Berlin Crisis; R. M. Byrnes, South Africa: A Country Study (Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1997), 338; FRUS, 1951, Vol. V, Secretary of State to South African Ambassador, 5 February 1951; FRUS, 1951, Vol. V, Consul General Johannesburg to the Department of State, 19 April 1951; Borstelmann, Apartheid’s Reluctant Uncle, 4, 50, 81; E. Michel, ‘“My Children, You Are Permitted in Time of Great Danger to Walk with the Devil until You Have Crossed the Bridge”: President Truman, Apartheid and the Early Cold War’, South African Historical Journal, 72, 2 (2020) 2, 25–26.15 John F. Kennedy Library (hereafter KL), John F. Kennedy Papers (hereafter Kennedy papers), Box 2, NSF, Africa General 8/61, Guidelines for US policy towards the Republic of South Africa, 19 July 1961; KL, Kennedy papers, Box 2, NSF, Africa General 5/62, Department of State Guidelines for Policy and Operations Republic of South Africa, May 1962; KL, Kennedy papers, Box 159A, NSF, South Africa-General, Department of State National Strategy Series-South Africa, 28 October 1963; FRUS, 1964–1968, Vol. XXIV, Africa National Security Action Memorandum (hereafter NSAM), No. 295, 24 April 1964; E. Michel, ‘“Since We Can’t now Bet on a Winner, We Should Be Hedging Our Bets and Buying Time”: President John F. Kennedy, Domestic Racial Equality and Apartheid South Africa in the Early 1960s’, Safundi 22, 4 (2022), 1–2; E. Michel, ‘“You Haven’t Been too Horrible to Us Recently”: Lyndon B. Johnson and Apartheid South Africa’, Diplomacy and Statecraft, 32, 4 (2021), 743–744.16 Horne, From the Barrel of a Gun, 7; Michel, ‘The Luster of Chrome’, 8; R. Nixon, The Memoirs of Richard Nixon (New York: Grosset and Dunlap, 1978) 439–440.17 H. Kissinger, White House Years (London: Simon and Schuster, 1979), 69; M. Lawrence, ‘Containing Globalism: The United States and the Developing World in the 1970s’, in N. Ferguson, C. S. Maier, E. Manela, and D. J. Sargent, eds, The Shock of the Global: The 1970s in Perspective (Cambridge: Belknap Press, 2010), 209–210; Michel, ‘The Luster of Chrome’, 8; J. Suri, ‘Henry Kissinger and the Geopolitics of Globalization’, in N. Ferguson, C. S. Maier, E. Manela, and D. J. Sargent, eds, The Shock of the Global: The 1970s in Perspective (Cambridge: Belknap Press, 2010), 173–184.18 NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-145, NSSM 39, Minutes of NSC Meeting, 17 December 1969; FRUS, Vol. 28, 1969–1976, Paper prepared by the NSC Departmental Group for Africa, 9 December 1969; FRUS, Vol. 28, 11969–1976, Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, March 1972.19 TL, Acheson papers, Box 68, MemCon File, MemCon, 20 April 1951; NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-145, NSSM-39 3 of 3 (2 of 4), Briefing by CIA Director Richard Helms, 17 December 1969; FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. E-5, Part 1, 1969–1972, Office of National Estimates Memorandum, 13 March 1969; FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. E-5, Part 1, 1969–1972, CIA Special Report, 20 June 1969; FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. E-5, Part 1, 1969–1972, Office of National Estimates Memorandum, 23 March 1971; FRUS, Vol. 28, 1969–1976, Paper prepared in the Bureau of African Affairs, undated; Michel, ‘My Children’, 17–19.20 FRUS, Vol. 28, 1969–1976, Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, 9 December 1969; NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-145, NSSM 39, Minutes of NSC Meeting, 17 December 1969; FRUS, Vol. 28, 1969–1976, Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, March 1972.21 KL, Kennedy papers, Box 2, NSF, Africa General 5/62, Department of State Guidelines for Policy and Operations Republic of South Africa, May 1962; FRUS, Vol. 28, 1969–1976, Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, 9 December 1969; FRUS, Vol. 28, 1969–1976, Memorandum from Guhin to Kissinger, 19 November 1971; FRUS, Vol. 28, 1969–1976, Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, March 1972.22 FRUS, Vol. 28, 1969–1976, From Hughes to Rogers, June 24, 1969; NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-145, NSSM-39 3 of 3 (2 of 4), Briefing by CIA Director Richard Helms, 17 December 1969.23 FRUS, Vol. 28, 1969–1976, From Hughes to Rogers, June 24, 1969; NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-145, NSSM-39 3 of 3 (2 of 4), Briefing by CIA Director Richard Helms, 17 December 1969.24 NL, WHCF, Box 63, CO 135 South Africa, Republic of (1969–70) Paper to Henry A. Kissinger from Dean Acheson, 30 April 969; NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-145, NSSM 39, Minutes of NSC Meeting, 17 December 1969; FRUS, Vol. 28, 1969–1976, Conversation between Nixon and Kissinger, 6 October 1971; D. Brinkley, Dean Acheson: The Cold War Years 1953–1971 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992), 316–327; J. Crespino, Strom Thurmond’s America (New York: Hill and Wang, 2013), 71, 193; E. Michel, The White House and White Africa: Presidential Policy towards Rhodesia during the UDI Era of 1965–79 (New York: Routledge, 2018) 133–134.25 FRUS, 1969–1976, Southern Africa, Vol. 28, Conversation between Nixon and Kissinger, 6 October 197; GFL, General (1), Box 3, Stanley S. Scott Papers, 1971–1977, Black Caucus – Meeting with the President, August 1974, Washington Post, 13 August 1974; Horne, From the Barrel of a Gun, 7, 65.26 FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Conversation between Nixon and Kissinger, 28 September 1971; Kissinger, White House Years, 69; Suri, ‘Henry Kissinger and the Geopolitics of Globalization’, 186.27 NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-144, NSSM-393 of 3 (1 of 4), Memorandum for Nixon from Kissinger, 3 April 1969; Kissinger, White House Years, 65; Lake, The ‘Tar Baby’ Option, 124.28 NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-144, NSSM-393 of 3 (1 of 4), Memorandum for Nixon from Kissinger, 3 April 1969.29 NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-144, NSSM-392 of 3 (1 of 2), NSC Interdisciplinary Group for Africa, Study in Response to NSSM 39, 15 August 1969.30 NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-144, NSSM-392 of 3 (1 of 2), NSC Interdisciplinary Group for Africa, Study in Response to NSSM 39, 15 August 1969.31 NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-144, NSSM-392 of 3 (1 of 2), NSC Interdisciplinary Group for Africa, Study in Response to NSSM 39, 15 August 1969; NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-145, NSSM-393 of 3 (4 of 4), NSC Review Group Meeting, Southern Africa (NSSM 39), 16 October 1969.32 NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-145, NSSM-393 of 3 (4 of 4), NSC Review Group Meeting, Southern Africa (NSSM 39), 16 October 1969; NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Boz H-026, Southern Africa (NSSM 39) (3 of 3), Issues for Decision, NSC Meeting, 17 December 1969.33 NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-145, NSSM-393 of 3 (4 of 4), NSC Review Group Meeting, Southern Africa (NSSM 39), 16 October 1969; NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Boz H-026, Southern Africa (NSSM 39) (3 of 3), Issues for Decision, NSC Meeting, 17 December 1969.34 NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Boz H-026, Southern Africa (NSSM 39) (3 of 3), Issues for Decision, NSC Meeting, 17 December 1969; NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-026, Southern Africa (NSSM 39) (3 of 3), Memorandum for Nixon from Stans, 12 December 1969; NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-145 NSSM-39 3 of 3 (2 of 4), Minutes of NSC Meeting, 17 December 1969.35 NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-145 NSSM-39 3 of 3 (2 of 4), Minutes of NSC Meeting, 17 December 1969.36 NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-145, NSSM-39 3 of 3 (2 of 4), Memo from Kissinger to Agnew et al., 28 January 1970.37 NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-145, NSSM-39 3 of 3 (2 of 4), Memo from Kissinger to Agnew et al., 28 January 1970.38 Archives of the South Africa Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Countries, 1/33/3, Vol. 16, USA Relations with South Africa, Memorandum from Taswell to Muller, 11 June 1970; NL, WHCF, Box 65, CO 135: Republic of South Africa, Memorandum from Kissinger to Nixon, 24 August 1970.39 NL, WHCF, Box 65, CO 135: Republic of South Africa, Memorandum from Kissinger to Nixon, 24 August 1970.40 FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Telegram from the State Department to Consulate General Cape Town, 14 May 1971; Michel, ‘You Haven’t Been too Horrible’, 750; Morgan, ‘Our Own Interests’, 477.41 National Archives and Records Administration, General Record of the Department of State, Political and Defense Record Group 59, Subject Numerical Files, 1970–1973, Box 2578, Pol 15-1 SAFR, Telegram from Hurd to Department of State, 2 August 1973; Morgan, ‘Our Own Interests’, 478.42 KL, Papers of Harlan Cleveland, Box 98, South Africa and Apartheid, 7/63–8/63, Statement by Stevenson to the United Nations Security Council (UNSC), 2 August 1963; NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-208, NSDM 81, Memo from Kissinger to Agnew et al., 17 August 1970.43 NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-208, NSDM 81, Memo from Kissinger to Agnew et al., 17 August 1970.44 NL, National Security Council Institutional (‘H’) Files, Study Memorandums (1969–1974), Box H-144, NSSM-39 2 of 3 (2 of 2), Memorandum for Kissinger from Stans, 16 April 1970; FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Telegram from Rogers to Department of State, 12 July 1970; NL, National Security Council Institutional (‘H’) Files, Policy Papers (1969–1974, Box H-213, NSDM 38: Records of the Staff Secretary NSDM Working Files, Memorandum from Kissinger to Nixon, 10 August 1970; NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-208, NSDM 81, Memo from Kissinger to Agnew et al., 17 August 1970.45 NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-208, NSDM 81, Memo from Kissinger to Agnew et al., 17 August 1970; FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28 Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, March 1972.46 NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-208, NSDM 81, Memorandum from Kissinger to Agnew et al., 17 August 1970; FRUS, Vol. 28, Memorandum from Johnson to Packard, 18 November 1970; FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28 Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, March 1972.47 FRUS, Vol. 28, 1969–1976, Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, 9 December 1969; FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, from Kissinger to Nixon, 23 December 1969.48 FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, from Kissinger to Nixon, 23 December 1969.49 FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, from Kissinger to Nixon, 23 December 1969.50 FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, from Kissinger to Nixon, 23 December 1969; ‘US Imperialism and the Southern African Liberation Movement’, Sechaba, 4, 5 (1970), 11–13.51 Michel, ‘You Haven’t Been too Horrible’, 753–754.52 National Security Archive, from James G. Poor, Director, Division of International Security Affairs, US Atomic Energy Commission, to Chairman Ray et al., 2 October 1974, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB181/sa08.pdf; J. Richelson, Spying on the Bomb: American Nuclear Intelligence from Nazi Germany to Iran and North Korea (New York: W. W. Norton, 2006), 244, 270.53 Z. Cervenka and B. Rogers, The Nuclear Axis: Secret Collaboration between West Germany and South Africa (London: Julian Friedmann Books, 1978) 274–275; Richelson, Spying on the Bomb, 263.54 FRUS, 1969–1976, Southern Africa, Vol. 28, Memorandum from Hormats and Wright to Kissinger, 24 January 1972.55 FRUS, 1969–1976, Southern Africa, Vol. 28, Memorandum from Guhin to Kissinger, 19 November 1971; FRUS, 1969–1976, Southern Africa, Vol. 28, Memorandum from Hormats and Wright to Kissinger, 24 January 1972; FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, March 1972.56 FRUS, 1969–1976, Southern Africa, Vol. 28, Memorandum from Guhin to Kissinger, 19 November 1971; FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, March 1972.57 FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Memorandum from Kissinger to Flanigan, 14 July 1973; Thomson, US Foreign Policy towards Apartheid South Africa, 57, 77.58 LBJL, NSF, Box 4, NSAM, No. 295, 24 April 1964; FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, March 1972; Thomson, US Foreign Policy towards Apartheid South Africa, 78.59 FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, March 1972; FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Memorandum from Kissinger to Flanigan, 14 July 1973; Thomson, US Foreign Policy towards Apartheid South Africa, 78.60 FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, March 1972; Thomson, US Foreign Policy towards Apartheid South Africa, 78.61 FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Memorandum from Newsom and Stevenson to Rogers, 17 February 1971; FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, March 1972.62 FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Memorandum from Newsom and Stevenson to Rogers, 17 February 1971; FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, March 1972.63 FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Memorandum from Newsom and Stevenson to Rogers, 17 February 1971; FRUS 1969–1976, Vol. E-5, Part 1, 1969–1972, US Foreign Policy for the 1970s, The Emerging Structure of Peace: A Report to the Congress by Nixon, 9 February 1972; ‘The Stealthy American’, Sechaba, August 1972, https://www.sahistory.org.za/archive/sechaba-volume-6-number-8-august-1972; Thomson, US Foreign Policy towards Apartheid South Africa, 78.64 FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Memorandum from Newsom and Stevenson to Rogers, 17 February 1971; FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Memorandum from Kissinger to Flanigan, 14 July 1973.65 The National Archives, London, PREM, 13/545, From Salisbury to Commonwealth Relations Office, No. 1707, 11 November 1965; LBJL, NSF, Box 97, Rhodesia, Vol. 2, UNSC Resolution 232, as attachment to letter from Rostow to Johnson, 31 December 1968; LBJL, NSF, Box 97, Rhodesia, Vol. 2, UNSC Resolution 253, as attachment to letter from Rostow to Johnson, 31 December 1968.66 Cory Library, Rhodesia-Zimbabwe Papers, Box 2006 A, Cabinet Memoranda 1966 42–108, Ministry of Defence Memo, 12 February 1966; LBJL, NSF, Box 97, Rhodesia, Vol. 2, Rhodesia-Zambia SitRep, 18 February 1966; Michel, The White House and White Africa, 55–58.67 LBJL, NSF, Box 97, Rhodesia, Vol. 2, CIA Intelligence Memo, 9 December 1966; LBJL, NSF, Box 97, Rhodesia, Vol. 2, CIA Intelligence Memo, June 1968; LBJL, NSF, Box 97, Rhodesia, Vol. 2, UNSC Resolution 232, as attachment to letter from Rostow to Johnson, 31 December 1968; LBJL, NSF, Box 97, Rhodesia, Vol. 2, UNSC Resolution 253, as attachment to letter from Rostow to Johnson, 31 December 1968; Michel, The White House and White Africa, 42, 48, 52–53, 81–82, 89–90.68 NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-144, NSSM-392 of 3 (1 of 2), NSC Interdisciplinary Group for Africa, Study in Response to NSSM 39, 15 August 1969; Michel, ‘The Luster of Chrome’, 12.69 NL, NSC Country Files, Box 743, Rhodesia (1969–1970), Statement of J. Clayton Stephenson, President, Mining and Metals Division, Union Carbide Corporation, 31 October 1969; NL, NSC Country Files, Box 743, Rhodesia (1969–1970), Statement L. G. Bliss, Chairman of the Board and President of Foote Mineral Company, 31 October 1969; NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-214, NSDM 47, Memorandum from Stans to Nixon, 15 May 1970; Michel, ‘The Luster of Chrome’, 8–9.70 NL, NSC Country Files, Box 743, Rhodesia (1969–1970), Memorandum from Davis Jr. to Kissinger, 24 December 1969; NL, WHCF, Box 63, CO 124 Rhodesia 5/1/70–8/31/70, Letter from Eastland to Mollenoff, 19 March 1970; NL, NSC Country Files, Box 743, Rhodesia Vol. 2 (1969–1970), Letter from Thurmond to Nixon, 15 April 1970; FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, from Kissinger to the Vice President et al., 7 August 1970; NL, NSC Country Files, Box 743, Rhodesia, Vol. 2 (1969–1970), Memorandum from Kissinger to Nixon, 16 November 1971; DeRoche, Black, White and Chrome, 170, 201–202; Horne, From the Barrel of a Gun, 151, 180–181; Michel, ‘The Luster of Chrome’, 15–21.71 NL, NSC Country Files, Box 743, Rhodesia, Vol. 2 (1970–1974), Memorandum from Wright to Kissinger, 27 November 1971; NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-188, Memorandum from Newsom to Kissinger, 22 December 1971; Michel, The White House and White Africa, 151–157.72 FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, 2 April 1970; FRUS, 1969–1976, Southern Africa, Vol. 28, Intelligence note from the Bureau of Intelligence and Research, 9 March 1971.73 FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, 2 April 1970; FRUS, 1969–1976, Southern Africa, Vol. 28, Intelligence note from the Bureau of Intelligence and Research, 9 March 1971.74 FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, 2 April 1970; Michel, ‘You Haven’t Been too Horrible’, 756–758.75 NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-207, NSSM 89, Memo from Kissinger to Secretary of State Rogers et al., 12 February 1970; FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, 2 April 1970.76 FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, National Security Decision Memorandum 55, 22 May 1970.77 FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Paper prepared by the NSC Interdepartmental Group for Africa, 2 April 1970; FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Memorandum from Kissinger to Nixon, 15 April 1970; NL, NSC Institutional (‘H’) Files, Box H-208, NSDM 55, Memo from Kissinger to Vice President Agnew et al., 17 April 1970; FRUS, 1969–1976, Vol. 28, Memorandum from U. Alexis Johnson to Nixon, 6 July 1970; Thomson, US Foreign Policy towards Apartheid South Africa, 72.Additional informationNotes on contributorsEddie MichelEddie Michel joined the Department of Historical and Heritage Studies at the University of Pretoria as a Research Fellow in April 2017. His current research interests lie in the field of US policy towards South Africa during the apartheid era. His broader areas of research include US foreign policy, US history, and the Cold War in southern Africa. He is the author of The White House and White Africa: Presidential Policy toward Rhodesia during the UDI era of 1965–79, which was published by Routledge in 2018. His research has been recognised and funded by the Harry S. Truman, Lyndon B. Johnson, and Gerald R. Ford Presidential Foundations. Eddie Michel is also an Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. Fellow of the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library.

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“我们必须分析我们的国家利益在哪里，不要过于担心别人的国内政策”:理查德·m·尼克松和20世纪70年代初的种族隔离南非

“1900年以来与非洲的关系”，载于R. D. Schulzinger主编的《美国外交关系指南》(Malden: Blackwell, 2006)， 117页;R. Massie，《松开束缚:种族隔离年代的美国和南非》(纽约:Nan A. Talese出版社，1997);T. Noer，《冷战与黑人解放:1948-1968年美国与非洲白人统治》(哥伦比亚:密苏里大学出版社，1985年);B.普卢默:《起风:美国黑人与美国外交事务，1935-1960》(教堂山:北卡罗来纳大学出版社，1996年);7 . P. von Eschen，《反对帝国的种族:美国黑人和反殖民主义，1937-1957》(伊萨卡:康奈尔大学出版社，1997)号角，来自枪管;摩根，我们自己的利益;尼克松:《南非与国内外异议》，《外交与治国方略》，2006年第17期，第475-495.9页。罗格瓦尔和A.普雷斯顿主编，《尼克松与世界:1969-1977年的美国外交关系》(牛津:牛津大学出版社，2008年)一个。Lake，“柏油婴儿”选项:美国对南罗得西亚的政策(纽约:哥伦比亚大学出版社，1976);A.汤姆森:《1948-1994年美国对种族隔离南非的外交政策:利益冲突》(纽约:帕尔格雷夫·麦克米伦出版社，2008)哈里·s·杜鲁门图书馆(以下简称TL)，哈里·s·杜鲁门的文件(以下简称杜鲁门文件)，177号箱，总统秘书文件，国家安全委员会会议，1948年6月17日，中央情报局评论;TL，杜鲁门文件，170号盒子，总统秘书档案，国家安全政策，第一卷，地理区域，国家安全委员会关于美国当前国家安全政策的报告;《美国对外关系》，1948年，第五卷，第一部分，国务院政策声明，1948年11月1日;纳尔逊·曼德拉纪念中心，希望之心帕德拉格·奥马利档案，第30号人口登记法，1948-1990年种族隔离立法;威特沃特斯兰德大学，历史文献研究档案馆，群体区域法案(1950年第41号法案)记录，ZA HPRA A1485，南非联邦法案，1950年第41号;TL, Joseph D. Sweeney文件(以下简称Sweeney文件)，南非联邦档案，议会立法箱3，《1949年第55号南非联邦法案》;TL，斯威尼文件，南非联邦档案，议会立法箱3，《1950年第21号南非联邦法》;D.艾克曼，《伟大的灵魂:六个改变世纪的人》(兰哈姆:列克星敦出版社，2003)，第81页;T.达文波特，南非:现代史(多伦多:多伦多大学出版社，1977)，253.12 TL，杜鲁门文件，国家情报评估，总统秘书文件，中央情报报告，第215栏，南非联邦的政治局势，1949年1月31日;TL，迪恩·艾奇逊论文(以下简称艾奇逊论文)，谈话备忘录档案1952年10月，第71箱，谈话备忘录，1952年10月14日;FRUS, 1952-1954，卷11，第1部分，编辑注释。13林登·贝恩斯·约翰逊图书馆(以下简称LBJL)，林登·贝恩斯·约翰逊论文，73箱，南非，中央情报局国家情报评估，1964年5月20日;LBJL，国家安全档案(以下简称NSF)，第78箱，南非，11/64-9/66，第二卷，中央情报局特别报告，1965年9月3日;杰拉尔德·r·福特图书馆(以下简称GFL)，白宫中央文件(以下简称WHCF)， 45号箱，南非，1975年6月1日至1975年11月30日，福特简报备忘录，14号TL，杜鲁门文件，总统秘书文件，150号箱，外交事务，国务院报告:柏林危机;R. M. Byrnes，《南非:国家研究》(华盛顿特区:国会图书馆，1997)，第338页;FRUS, 1951年，第五卷，南非大使国务卿，1951年2月5日;FRUS, 1951年，第五卷，约翰内斯堡驻国务院总领事，1951年4月19日;博斯特尔曼，种族隔离不情愿的叔叔，4,50,81;E.米歇尔，“我的孩子们，你们被允许在重大危险时刻与魔鬼同行，直到你们跨过桥”:杜鲁门总统，种族隔离和冷战早期”，南非历史杂志，72,2(2020)2,25-26.15约翰·f·肯尼迪图书馆(以下简称KL)，约翰·f·肯尼迪文件(以下简称肯尼迪文件)，第2框，美国国家科学基金会，非洲第8/61号一般性文件，美国对南非共和国政策指导方针，1961年7月19日;KL，肯尼迪文件，方框2，国家科学基金会，非洲将军5/62，南非共和国国务院政策和行动指导方针，1962年5月;KL，《肯尼迪论文》，南非国家科学基金会第159A箱-总编，国务院国家战略丛书-南非，1963年10月28日;《非洲国家安全行动备忘录》，1964年4月24日，第295号，第二十四卷，1964 - 1968年;E.米歇尔:“既然我们现在不能赌谁赢，我们就应该两面下注，争取时间”:约翰·f·肯尼迪总统，《1960年代早期南非国内种族平等和种族隔离》，《萨文迪》22期，4(2022)，第1-2页;E.米歇尔，《你最近对我们还不算太可怕》:林登B。《约翰逊与南非种族隔离》，《外交与治国之道》，第32期，第4(2021)，743-744.16页。米歇尔，《铬的光泽》，8;R.尼克松，《理查德·尼克松回忆录》(纽约:格罗塞特和邓拉普出版社，1978)，439-440.17 H.基辛格，《白宫岁月》(伦敦:西蒙和舒斯特出版社，1979)，69页;M.劳伦斯，《遏制全球主义:20世纪70年代的美国和发展中国家》，载于N.弗格森、C. S.迈尔、E.马内拉和D. J.萨金特主编，《全球的冲击:透视20世纪70年代》(剑桥:贝尔纳普出版社，2010)，209-210页;米歇尔，《铬的光泽》，8;J. Suri，《亨利·基辛格与全球化的地缘政治》，载于N. Ferguson, C. S. Maier, E. Manela和D. J. Sargent主编，《全球的冲击:1970年代的视角》(剑桥:Belknap出版社，2010)，173-184.18 NL，国家安全委员会机构(“H”)文件，Box H-145, NSSM 39，国家安全委员会会议纪要，1969年12月17日;FRUS, 1969 - 1976年第28卷，国家安全委员会非洲部门小组编写的文件，1969年12月9日;FRUS，第28卷，1969 - 1976年，国家安全委员会非洲部门间小组编写的文件，1972年3月。TL，艾奇逊文件，第68箱，MemCon文件，MemCon, 1951年4月20日;NL，国家安全委员会机构(“H”)档案，H-145箱，NSSM-39 3 / 3(2 / 4)，中央情报局局长理查德·赫尔姆斯简报，1969年12月17日;FRUS, 1969 - 1976年，E-5卷，第1部分，1969 - 1972年，国家预算办公室备忘录，1969年3月13日;1969年6月20日，中央情报局特别报告，1969 - 1976,E-5卷，第1部分，1969 - 1972;FRUS, 1969-1976年，E-5卷，第1部分，1969-1972年，国家预算办公室备忘录，1971年3月23日;FRUS，第28卷，1969-1976年，非洲事务局编写的文件，未注明日期;米歇尔，“我的孩子们”，1969 - 1976年第28卷，1969年12月9日，国家安全委员会非洲部门间小组编写的文件;1969年12月17日，国家安全委员会机构(“H”)档案，NSSM 39，国家安全委员会会议纪要，H-145箱;1969-1976年，第28卷，国家安全委员会非洲部门间小组编写的文件，1972.21 KL，肯尼迪文件，方框2，国家科学基金会，非洲将军5/62，南非共和国国务院政策和行动指导方针，1962年5月;1969年12月9日，国家安全委员会非洲部门间小组编写的文件，1969 - 1976年第28卷;FRUS，第28卷，1969-1976年，Guhin给基辛格的备忘录，1971年11月19日;1969年6月24日，《从休斯到罗杰斯》，1969年6月24日，第28卷，1969 - 1976年，国家安全委员会跨部门非洲小组编写的论文;NL，国家安全委员会机构(“H”)档案，H-145箱，NSSM-39 3 / 3(2 / 4)，中央情报局局长理查德·赫尔姆斯简报，1969年12月17日。FRUS，第28卷，1969 - 1976年，从休斯到罗杰斯，1969年6月24日;NL，国家安全委员会机构文件(H)， H-145箱，NSSM-39 3 / 3(2 / 4)，中央情报局局长理查德·赫尔姆斯的简报，1969年12月17日;NL，国家安全委员会，1963 / 63箱，南非，共和国(1969-70)迪安·艾奇逊给亨利·a·基辛格的文件;1969年12月17日，国家安全委员会机构(“H”)档案，NSSM 39，国家安全委员会会议纪要，H-145箱;FRUS, Vol. 28, 1969-1976，尼克松与基辛格的对话，1971年10月6日;D.布林克利，迪恩艾奇逊:冷战年代1953-1971(纽黑文:耶鲁大学出版社，1992)，316-327;J. Crespino, Strom Thurmond的《美国》(纽约:Hill and Wang出版社，2013)，71,193;E. Michel，《白宫与白色非洲:1965-79年UDI时期总统对罗得西亚的政策》(纽约:Routledge出版社，2018)133-134.25 FRUS, 1969-1976，南部非洲，卷28，尼克松与基辛格的对话，1997年10月6日;GFL，将军(1)，第3栏，斯坦利·s·斯科特文件，1971-1977，黑人核心小组-会见总统，1974年8月，《华盛顿邮报》，1974年8月13日;霍恩:《枪杆子里的事》，第7卷，65.26 FRUS, 1969-1976，第28卷，尼克松与基辛格的对话，1971年9月28日;基辛格，白宫岁月，69岁;苏瑞，《亨利·基辛格与全球化的地缘政治》，186.27 NL，国家安全委员会机构(“H”)档案，H-144箱，NSSM-393 / 3(1 / 4)，基辛格给尼克松的备忘录，1969年4月3日;基辛格，白宫岁月，65岁;湖,“焦油宝贝”的选项,124.28问,NSC机构(H)文件盒H - 144, NSSM - 393 3(4) 1,尼克松与基辛格的备忘录,4月3日1969.29问,NSC机构(H)文件盒H - 144, NSSM - 392 3(1 2)非洲,NSC跨学科小组研究NSSM 39响应,8月15日1969.30问,NSC机构(H)文件盒H - 144, NSSM - 392 3(1 2)非洲,NSC跨学科小组研究NSSM 39响应,8月15日1969.31问,国家安全委员会机构(“H”)档案，H-144箱，NSSM-392 / 3(1 / 2)，国家安全委员会非洲跨学科小组，对NSSM 39的回应研究，1969年8月15日;NL, 1969年10月16日，国家安全委员会机构(“H”)档案，第H-145栏，3分之4的国家安全委员会-393(4分之4)，国家安全委员会审查小组会议，南部非洲(NSSM 39)。 28、情报和研究局的情报说明，1971年3月9日;FRUS, 1969-1976，第28卷，国家安全委员会非洲部门间小组编写的文件，1970年4月2日;1969-1976年，南部非洲，第28卷，情报和研究局的情报说明，1971年3月9日;1970年4月2日，1969-1976年，第28卷，国家安全委员会非洲部门间小组编写的文件;米歇尔，“你还没有太可怕”，756-758.75 NL，国家安全委员会机构(“H”)文件，H-207箱，NSSM 89，基辛格给国务卿罗杰斯等人的备忘录，1970年2月12日;1969-1976年，第28卷，国家安全委员会非洲部门间小组编写的文件，1970年4月2日;FRUS, 1969-1976，卷28，基辛格给尼克松的备忘录，1970年4月15日;NL，国家安全委员会机构档案，H-208箱，NSDM 55，基辛格给副总统阿格纽等人的备忘录，1970年4月17日;FRUS, 1969-1976，卷28，美国亚历克西斯·约翰逊给尼克松的备忘录，1970年7月6日;汤姆逊，美国对种族隔离南非的外交政策，72岁。艾迪·米歇尔(eddie Michel)于2017年4月加入比勒陀利亚大学历史与遗产研究系，担任研究员。他目前的研究方向是种族隔离时期美国对南非的政策。他更广泛的研究领域包括美国外交政策、美国历史和南部非洲的冷战。他是《白宫和白色非洲:1965-79年UDI时代总统对罗得西亚的政策》一书的作者，该书于2018年由劳特利奇出版社出版。他的研究得到了哈里·s·杜鲁门、林登·b·约翰逊和杰拉尔德·r·福特总统基金会的认可和资助。Eddie Michel也是约翰·肯尼迪总统图书馆的Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.研究员。

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来源期刊

South African Historical Journal Multiple-

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0.70

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期刊介绍： Over the past 40 years, the South African Historical Journal has become renowned and internationally regarded as a premier history journal published in South Africa, promoting significant historical scholarship on the country as well as the southern African region. The journal, which is linked to the Southern African Historical Society, has provided a high-quality medium for original thinking about South African history and has thus shaped - and continues to contribute towards defining - the historiography of the region.