List of Figures

Abstract

Figure 1.1 Population and population growth rates for different regions of the world in 2018 [5] 2 Figure 1.2 Population growth rates and populations of African countries [5, 6] 2 Figure 1.3 Electrification rates in Africa in 1990 (Panel a) and in 2016 (Panel b) [7] 3 Figure 1.4 World primary energy supply by energy source in gigatons of oil equivalent (Gtoe) [8] 4 Figure 1.5 Chart showing how rural and urban electrification rates are combined to get a national electrification rate [9] 5 Figure 1.6 Operating constraints for firms in sub-Saharan Africa [11] 6 Figure 2.1 The three pillars of energy sustainability 7 Figure 2.2 Interaction of the three pillars of sustainability 9 Figure 3.1 Sources of electricity in Africa in 2017 [12] 10 Figure 3.2 Percentage of electricity generated from coal in African countries in 2015. Gray indicates no data 13 Figure 3.3 Acid rain in the United States in 1989–1991 and in 2016–2018 [16] 14 Figure 3.4 Schematic of electricity generation from coal 15 Figure 3.5 Schematic of a generator. Source: EIA [17] 15 Figure 3.6 How a simple cycle, or open cycle, works 16 Figure 3.7 How a combined cycle works 17 Figure 3.8 Percentage of electricity generation in African countries that came from oil in 2015. Gray indicates no data [19] 18 Figure 3.9 How a nuclear plant generates electricity 19 Figure 3.10 Percentage of electricity generation in Africa that comes from hydropower. Gray indicates no data [23] 21 Figure 3.11 How hydroelectricity is generated 22 Figure 3.12 The three main types of geothermal plants 23 Figure 3.13 Efficiency of different electrical plants [25] 24 Figure 3.14 Typical solar system connected to the grid 25 Figure 3.15 Direct normal solar irradiation in kWh/m per year across Africa [28] 26 Figure 3.16 Cost of residential solar over time in US$ per watt of direct current 26 Figure 3.17 Different types of concentrated solar power [30] 27 Figure 3.18 Wind speed around Africa in meters/second [31] 28 Figure 3.19 Parts of a wind turbine 29 Figure 3.20 Annual bird mortality from select anthropogenic causes in the United States 30 Figure 3.21 Electricity generation from a typical waste-to-energy power plant 31 Figure 3.22 Generation, transmission, and distribution of electricity 33 Figure 3.23 LCOE for different fuel sources by cost category: capital, fixed O&M, variable O&M, and transmission costs 36 Figure 3.24 Demand curve and forecast for a typical day in March in California showing two demand peaks (captured on March 26, 2018) [36] 37 Figure 3.25 Demand, solar supply, and difference between the two (duck curve) for CAISO on June 17, 2020 [36] 38 Figure 4.1 Carbon emissions by region of the world in 2018 [38] 39 Figure 4.2 Tons of CO2 equivalent emitted per GWh for life cycle of various electricity sources 41