Orientation and defensive reactions as alternatives to arousal in theories of nonverbal reactions to changes in immediacy

Abstract

It has long been assumed that reactions to changes in nonverbal expressions of immediacy were inextricably linked to arousal. This manuscript examines that link within five theories: equilibrium (Argyle & Dean, 1965), arousal‐labeling (Patterson, 1976), nonverbal expectancy violations (Burgoon, 1978), discrepancy‐arousal (Cappella & Greene, 1982), and arousal‐valence (Andersen, 1984). Arousal is conceptually vague and operationally difficult. Theorists should (1) reconceptualize arousal as orientation and defensive reactions and (2) operationalize these reactions through physiological measures or nonverbal behaviors.