Cultural confrontations: German Turnen, swedish gymnastics and english sport – European diversity in physical activities from a historical perspective

Abstract

Focusing on the second half of the nineteenth century, this paper examines the development of and changes in movement cultures and how these were influenced by the general conditions prevailing in a particular society at a particular time. Due to the mutual influences of society and physical culture, differing concepts of ‘physical exercise’ developed in the different countries of Europe. German Turnen, for example, arose from the political situation in Germany at the beginning of the nineteenth century, while at the same time in Sweden Lings gymnastics became predominant. England, by contrast, is regarded as the birthplace of modern sport, which on account of its basic principles – equal chances, competition, performance and record – differed fundamentally from German Turnen and from gymnastics. In Germany, in the second half of the nineteenth century, there was enormous rivalry between German Turnen, Swedish gymnastics and modern sport. This article analyzes the arguments and strategies used by the adherents of each of these forms of physical exercise and examines the background, the effects as well as the ‘sportification’ of physical culture. In addition the paper raises questions which go beyond the borders of Germany. Was there rivalry between different forms of physical culture in other countries, too? How did these different forms mark themselves off from one another, and how did they influence each other? When, how and why, for example, was German Turnen exported to Eastern Europe, Swedish gymnastics to England and modern sport to Spain? This article is intended to represent one of the many stones hitherto missing in the great mosaic of European sport history.