Older but Not Wiser: America Industrializes and Embraces the Flawed Philosophy of Behaviorism in Education

Abstract

In the decades following the Civil War and Reconstruction, the United States experienced a period of tremendous growth. During the seventy years between the end of Reconstruction and the end of World War II, the nation became a highly industrial, urbanized, and diverse society. The America of 1945 bore little resemblance to the America of 1875. During these seven decades, the modern United States came into being. The massive, often unwieldy, expansion of manufacturing and the teeming, overcrowded cities that appeared as a consequence of this development sparked a desire to impose order on an increasingly dynamic and chaotic society. This impulse permeated all aspects of American life during this period, and was especially pronounced in the increased prominence of federal and state government. Attempting to bring some semblance of organization, government at all levels expanded its regulatory reach. For the first time, the American educational system became the object of clearly defined government standards and regulations – as demonstrated by a number of seminal Supreme Court decisions. Developments in the economy also cast a shadow over educational practices in the United States. The factory model and its corresponding emphasis on mass production, routinization, and standardization permeated American pedagogy. Coupled with the principles of so-called scientific management, this emphasis gave rise to a behaviorist model of education. This development not only deviated significantly from the worldview of the Founders, but also had lasting consequences that reverberate in the present day. This chapter will begin by exploring the avenues for government influence on education at the federal and state level. It will also – through an investigation of controlling Supreme Court jurisprudence – discuss the limits of that influence. Next, this chapter will expose the pervasive and ongoing impact of behaviorist theory on the American educational system. It will then offer compelling critiques of this antiquated approach from sources as varied as neuroscientists and child psychologists – and from thinkers like Thomas Jefferson and Albert Einstein. Finally, the