Revolting Women? Early Kharijite Women in Islamic Sources

Abstract

Abstract:The Kharijites were an early movement of anti-government activists, self-proclaimed pious rebels who began their protests in the seventh century of the common era. Their initial complaint was against ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān (d. 656 ce), the third Caliph, for what they perceived as abuses of power and improper execution of Divine Law. Throughout Islamic history, many groups have appeared to protest deeply corrupt systems and injustices. Many women participated vigorously in antigovernment protests, many going so far as to take up arms. Even today, any group engaged in governmental protest or anti-government activities might easily be dubbed Kharijites and thus dismissed as "extremist." This paper focuses on women in Kharijite movements of late antiquity. The sources for this inquiry are early writers including Jāḥiẓ (d. 869 ce), Mubarrad (d. 900 ce), and Ṭabarī (d. 923 ce), with reference to the modern-era biographical compendium of ʿUmar Riḍā al-Kaḥḥāla. The three women discussed span three generations of Kharijite activity. Each of the three has a story with the ruler of the time. For Qaṭām, it is a story of revenge against the Caliph ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib (d. 660 ce). For Baljāʾ, it is one of political protest against the Caliph Muʿāwiya (d. 680 ce), directed against his governors Ziyād ibn Abīhi (d. 673 ce) and his son ʿUbayd Allāh ibn Ziyād (d. 686 ce). And for Ghazāla, it is a story of a year of battle and bloodshed during the rule of the Umayyad Caliph ʿAbd al-Mālik ibn Marwān's (d. 705 ce) tyrannical governor, al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf (d. 714 ce). The ways these deeply opinionated and activist women are depicted provide telling insight into how Muslim historiography has grappled with women revolutionaries.