Gastrointestinal worms and bacteria: From association to intervention.

A plethora of studies, both experimental and epidemiological, have indicated the occurrence of associations between infections by gastrointestinal (GI) helminths and the composition and function of the host gut microbiota. Given the worldwide risk and spread of anthelmintic resistance, particularly for GI parasites of livestock, a better understanding of the mechanisms underpinning the relationships between GI helminths and the gut microbiome, and between the latter and host health, may assist the development of novel microbiome-targeting and other bacteria-based strategies for parasite control. In this article, we review current and prospective methods to manipulate the host gut microbiome, and/or to exploit the immune stimulatory and modulatory properties of gut bacteria (and their products) to counteract the negative impact of GI worm infections; we also discuss the potential applications of these intervention strategies in programmes aimed to aid the fight against helminth diseases of humans and livestock.