The impact of Allied submarine operations on Ottoman decision-making during the Gallipoli campaign

ABSTRACT In the twentieth century, submarines came to the forefront of naval strategy. This secret and silent weapon moved from being an experimental project into the reality of naval battles, and eventually became a symbol of deterrence. Initially given tactical duties such as coastal defence and blockade running, submarines were quick to prove their strategic significance during the First World War, especially in Gallipoli. Throughout the campaign, Allied submarines compelled Ottoman defenders increasingly to rely on land and railway transportation, which cost six times more than seaborne supplies. Disruptions to the flow of ammunition and other supplies to Ottoman troops resulted in delays to counter-offensives and contributed significantly to the heavy rates of attrition suffered by the Turkish defenders. In addition, the submarine campaign substantially contributed to food shortages in Istanbul, then the Ottoman capital. This alone was proof of the concept that submarines could effectively be employed as strategic weapons of industrial war.