Mars Rover Penetrating Radar Modeling and Interpretation Considering Linear Frequency Modulation Source and Tilted Antenna

Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) has been extensively utilized in deep-space exploration. However, GPR modeling commonly employs simplified antenna models and carrier-free impulse signals, resulting in reduced accuracy and interpretability. In this paper, we addressed these limitations by combining a tilted monopole antenna and linear frequency modulation continuous wave (LFMCW) to simulate real conditions. Additionally, a radiation-pattern-compensation back-propagation (RPC-BP) algorithm was developed to improve the illumination of the right-inclined structure. We first introduced the LFMCW used by the Mars Rover Penetrating Radar (RoPeR) onboard the Zhurong rover, where frequencies range from 15 to 95 MHz. Although the LFMCW signal improves radiation efficiency, it increases data processing complexity. Then, the radiation patterns and response of the tilted monopole antenna were analyzed, where the radiated signal amplitude varies with frequency. Finally, a series of numerical and laboratory experiments were conducted to interpret the real RoPeR data. The results indicate that hyperbolic echoes tilt in the opposite direction of the survey direction. This study demonstrates that forward modeling considering real transmit signals and complex antenna models can improve modeling accuracy and prevent misleading interpretations on deep-space exploration missions. Moreover, the migration process can improve imaging quality by considering radiation pattern compensation.