Nature-based solutions, ecosystem services, disservices, and impacts on well-being in urban environments

Nature-based Solutions (NBS) can improve urban areas' livability, and they are essential to increase cities' resilience to anthropogenic activities and climate change. In addition, NBS can also improve biodiversity and they can supply a wide range of ecosystem services (ES) fundamental to improving food security, health, and well-being. Nevertheless, NBS can increase numerous ecosystem disservices (EDS) (e.g., erosion) that need to be considered when these infrastructures are planned. Several NBS are also threatened by numerous pressures (e.g., urban sprawl, pollution, climate change), decreasing their ability to supply ES and may increase the EDS from these areas. The NBS degradation and their poor condition reduce their capacity to supply ES, hampering their purpose. It is vital to reduce pressures on NBS, and when planned, the EDS supplied need to be considered.