Migration a road to empowerment? Agency, resources, and the left behind women in Punjab, India

ABSTRACT This paper is on transnational migration with a focus on Punjab in North India. This essentially being a male-dominated phenomenon, I examine the impact of migration on the empowerment of women in “left-behind” families. The three dimensions of empowerment highlighted here are resources, agency, and achievement. Data was collected via interviews and case studies of five left behind women and a survey of 48 Punjabi households where the men had migrated to the Middle East. The respondents were classified into three age groups: 20–35 years, 35–45 years and 45+. These offered comparison to understand problems related to remittances and women's empowerment. The research revealed how migration by men affected their left behind spouses. Some of them faced several hurdles and remained constrained by social and familial norms of patriarchy, while others found opportunities to resist such constraints.