Immunometabolism in livestock: triggers and physiological role of transcription regulators, nutrients, and microbiota.

cues and the likely mediators of immunometabolic responses in tissues of the pregnant animal. This model is based on available data for dairy cows, emphasizing molecular and physiological responses demonstrating how post-ruminal supply of methionine in late pregnancy or during early lactation prior to embryo implantation has led to alterations of immunometabolic pathways in the cow (e.g., liver), whole embryo, and neonatal calf (liver). Although emphasis is placed on methionine, experiments with sheep have demonstrated that a lack of other micronutrients (e.g., vitamin B 12 and folic acid) during the periconceptional period alters immunometabolic responses in the offspring during adulthood. Some of the available research in- dicates that immunometabolic adaptations in the liver of the young calf exposed to a greater supply of methionine in utero are associated with better performance during the pre-wean and early post-wean periods. Longer-term effects have not, to the best of our knowledge, been assessed.