Anatomical and Morphological Characteristics of Salvia pachystachya Trautv. (Lamiaceae) and Phytochemical Profiling and Bioactivities of Its Essential Oils and Extracts

Salvia pachystachya is a medicinally promising plant species, yet its pharmacological properties remain underexplored. This study aimed to investigate its anatomical, phytochemical and bioactive characteristics to assess its therapeutic potential comprehensively. Microscopic analysis revealed distinctive anatomical features, including quadrangular stems and glandular trichomes on leaves, providing valuable insights into the plant's structural properties. Phytochemical profiling of methanol and aqueous extracts identified chlorogenic acid as the major component (11,052.88–25,718.77 ng/mL), while essential oils were predominantly composed of phytol (48.4%) and caryophyllene oxide (26.2%). The total phenolic content and antioxidant capacity analyses showed that the methanol extract exhibited significant ABTS^•+ scavenging activity (90.06%). Bioactivity assays demonstrated the plant's antidiabetic, anticholinesterase and antimicrobial properties. The LC–MS/MS analysis of extracts revealed that chlorogenic acid was the most abundant secondary metabolite among the analysed compounds, with significant variations across different plant parts and extraction solvents. The highest concentration was detected in the aerial part methanol extract (34,885.06 ng/mL), followed by the flower methanol extract (25,718.77 ng/mL). Genotoxicity assessments, including Ames, Escherichia coli WP2, and Allium cepa tests, confirmed the nongenotoxic nature of the extracts. Furthermore, molecular docking indicated strong binding affinities of chlorogenic and quinic acids to target enzymes, supporting their therapeutic relevance. These findings highlighted S. pachystachya as a promising candidate for further pharmacological research, particularly for its potential in combating oxidative stress-related conditions such as diabetes and neurodegenerative diseases.