Revealing sources for synergistic control of PM2.5, O3, and CO2 in China: Based on social costs of air pollution and climate impact

China is concurrently facing the dual challenges of air pollution and climate change. Here, we established a coupled modeling framework that integrated a chemical transport model with a health impact assessment model and the human capital method, to quantify the contributions of 150 emission sources (five sectors in 30 provinces) to the CO₂ emissions, and the mortality burdens attributed to O₃ and PM_2.5. We found that, in 2019, the estimated premature deaths in China attributed to PM_2.5 and O₃ pollution were 1,499,073 and 143,420, respectively. The social cost of air pollution was approximately 232 billion USD (PM_2.5: 212 billion USD, O₃: 20 billion USD), comparable to the social cost of CO₂ emissions at 246 billion USD. The social costs of air pollution and carbon emissions attributable to the 150 emission sources exhibited significant heterogeneity. We identified the control priorities and primary control targets for each emission source. Consequently, based on the social costs of air pollution and climate impact, we proposed a synergistic emission control policy that accounted for spatial distribution and sectoral categories. This policy aimed to harmonize the control strategies for PM_2.5 pollution, O₃ pollution, and CO₂ emissions, thereby enhancing the comprehensive benefits of mitigation measures. Our study sheds light on optimizing emission control policies, enhancing the realism of relevant policy-making for synergistic control of air pollution and carbon emissions.