Improvements in source apportionment of multiple time-resolved PM2.5 inorganic and organic speciation measurements using constrained Positive Matrix Factorization

The equation of Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) has been modified to resolve multiple time resolution inputs and applied in numerous field studies. The refined modeling results provide a solution with an increased number of factors and enriched profile features. However, the incorporation of low time-resolved data may retrieve unfavorable mixed factor profiles, introducing high uncertainties into the PMF solution computations. To address this issue, a dual-stage PMF modeling procedure with predefined constraints was proposed. Multiple time-resolved PM_2.5 inorganic and organic speciation measurements were collected from autumn of 2022 to summer of 2023 in Taipei, Taiwan. Without using the proposed approach, a mixed factor of vehicle/biomass burning and an unphysically meaningful factor of sodium ion- and ammonium ion-rich were identified. After implementing the proposed approach, a refined number of eight factors with separated and reasonable profiles were retrieved. Over the sampling period, the largest contributor to PM_2.5 and organic carbon was vehicle (contribution = 26% and 47%, respectively), while those for secondary inorganic aerosols of SO₄²⁻, NO₃⁻, and NH₄⁺ were industry (27%, 25%, and 31%, respectively), highlighting the importance of regulating these two sources. The low vehicle contribution to NO₃⁻ may be due to time-lag effects from gas-to-particle conversion, which led to different temporal patterns between NO₃⁻ and primary species. Addressing this issue is crucial in future studies for better apportionment of secondary aerosols.