Optimizing solvothermal synthesis of aluminum-loaded pomelo peel for enhanced fluoride adsorption using response surface methodology

Addressing fluoride contamination in water remains a critical challenge, particularly when seeking cost-effective solutions. In this study, we present a novel aluminum-loaded pomelo peel adsorbent (PPA-Al), synthesized via a one-step solvothermal method, with parameters optimized through response surface methodology. The ideal conditions were established at 2.96 g of pomelo peel, 2 g of NaAlO₂, a reaction temperature of 168.62 °C, and a duration of 140.78 minutes. Characterization of PPA-Al revealed an abundance of hydroxyl and carbon functional groups, enhancing its reactivity with coordination unsaturated aluminum sites. Adsorption isotherms conformed to both Langmuir and Freundlich models, achieving a maximum adsorption capacity of 88.81 mg·g⁻¹, outperforming many existing biomass-based adsorbents. Kinetic analysis indicated that fluoride adsorption followed a pseudo-second-order model, with thermodynamic evaluations suggesting that this process is a spontaneous endothermic reaction. Characterization techniques, including Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), confirmed interactions between fluoride ions and -OH and -CH groups, as well as the formation of Al-F bonds. Notably, the use of PPA-Al reduces groundwater treatment costs by approximately 74.33∼83.24 % compared to activated alumina, and it can be reused multiple times without reagent regeneration. These findings highlight PPA-Al as a promising, efficient material for fluoride removal, while also demonstrating innovative applications for agricultural waste.