Targeted NAD+ repletion via biomimetic nanoparticle enables simultaneous management of intimal hyperplasia and accelerated re-endothelialization: A proof-of-concept study toward next-generation of endothelium-protective, anti-restenotic therapy

Endovascular interventions often fail due to restenosis, primarily caused by smooth muscle cell (SMC) proliferation, leading to intimal hyperplasia (IH). Current strategies to prevent restenosis are far from perfect and impose significant collateral damage on the fragile endothelial cell (EC), causing profound thrombotic risks. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺) is a co-enzyme and signaling substrate implicated in redox and metabolic homeostasis, with a pleiotropic role in protecting against cardiovascular diseases. However, a functional link between NAD⁺ repletion and the delicate duo of IH and EC regeneration has yet to be established. NAD⁺ repletion has been historically challenging due to its poor cellular uptake and low bioavailability. We have recently invented the first nanocarrier that enables direct intracellular delivery of NAD⁺ in vivo. Combining the merits of this prototypic NAD⁺-loaded calcium phosphate (CaP) nanoparticle (NP) and biomimetic surface functionalization, we created a biomimetic P-NAD⁺-NP with platelet membrane coating, which enabled an injectable modality that targets IH with excellent biocompatibility. Using human cell primary culture, we demonstrated the benefits of NP-assisted NAD⁺ repletion in selectively inhibiting the excessive proliferation of aortic SMC, while differentially protecting aortic EC from apoptosis. Moreover, in a rat balloon angioplasty model, a single-dose treatment with intravenously injected P-NAD⁺-NP immediately post angioplasty not only mitigated IH, but also accelerated the regeneration of EC (re-endothelialization) in vivo in comparison to control groups (i.e., saline, free NAD⁺ solution, empty CaP-NP). Collectively, our current study provides proof-of-concept evidence supporting the role of targeted NAD⁺ repletion nanotherapy in managing restenosis and improving reendothelialization.