Batteries for electric vehicles: Technical advancements, environmental challenges, and market perspectives

The rapid evolution of electric vehicles (EVs) highlights the critical role of battery technology in promoting sustainable transportation. This review offers a comprehensive introduction to the diverse landscape of batteries for EVs. In particular, it examines the impressive array of available battery technologies, focusing on the predominance of lithium-based batteries, such as lithium-ion and lithium-metal variants. Additionally, it explores battery technologies beyond lithium (“post-lithium”), including aluminum, sodium, and magnesium batteries. The potential of solid-state batteries is also discussed, along with the current status of various battery types in EV applications. The review further addresses end-of-life treatment strategies for EV batteries, including reuse, remanufacturing, and recycling, which are essential for mitigating the environmental impact of batteries and ensuring sustainable lifecycle management. Finally, market perspectives and potential future research directions for battery technologies in EVs are also discussed.