Integrating thermal perception and public space use – an experimental outdoor comfort study in cold winter-hot summer zone: Beijing, China

This study aims to unravel the seasonal differences in outdoor thermal comfort (OTC) in a cold winter-hot summer region, as well as the comprehensive impact of meteorological and human factors, along with people's activity patterns in public spaces, on OTC. Questionnaire surveys, microclimate measurements, and photo recording were conducted over 21 daytime sessions in seven public spaces across winter and summer. The results indicated a significant seasonal OTC variance in Beijing. The neutral PET and neutral PET range were 21.9°C and 15.2–28.6°C for summer, and 14.3°C and 6.1–22.5°C for winter. Globe temperature primarily impacted OTC during both seasons, while wind speed was the only additional influential factor in winter. In Beijing, summer cooling is more crucial than winter insulation; however, winter wind protection is prioritized over summer ventilation. Some human factors, including age, activity level, visiting purpose, short-term thermal experience, and environmental stimuli, also influence OTC to some extent. Furthermore, this study identified significant variations in the temporal distribution and age demographics of attendees in various types of public spaces across different seasons, which considerably influence OTC. Our findings provide insights into the relationship between outdoor thermal comfort and public space use, which informs climate adaptive urban design.