Anthropogenic land-use change decreases pollination and male and female fitness in terrestrial flowering plants.

Background and aims: The majority of the Earth's land area is currently occupied by humans. Measuring how terrestrial plants reproduce in these pervasive environments is essential for understanding their long-term viability and their ability to adapt to changing environments.

Methods: We conducted hierarchical and phylogenetically independent meta-analyses to assess the overall effects of anthropogenic land-use changes on pollination, and male and female fitness in terrestrial plants.

Key results: We found negative global effects of land-use change (i.e. mainly habitat loss and fragmentation) on pollination and on female and male fitness of terrestrial flowering plants. Negative effects were stronger in plants with self-incompatibility systems and in plants pollinated by invertebrates, regardless of life form and sexual expression. Pollination and female fitness of pollination-generalist and pollination-specialist plants were similarly negatively affected by land-use change, whereas male fitness of specialist plants showed no effects.

Conclusions: Our findings indicate that angiosperm populations remaining in fragmented habitats negatively affect pollination, and female and male fitness, which will probably decrease the recruitment, survival and long-term viability of plant populations remaining in fragmented landscapes. We underline the main current gaps of knowledge for future research agendas and call not only for a decrease in the current rates of land-use changes across the world but also to embark on active restoration efforts to increase the area and connectivity of remaining natural habitats.