EDX and LIBS Studies on Gallstones Using Partial Least Squares Discriminant Analysis (PLS-DA)

Gallstone formation inside the gallbladder is a serious disease and causes health problems. To create preventative measures, it is crucial to examine the composition of gallstones and identify the minerals that are responsible for their pathogenesis. In the present work, we have employed laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS)-based elemental studies in combination with partial least squares discriminative analyses (PLS-DA). Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) was also applied to quantify the elements in the different parts (core and surface) of the gallstones. Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy was used to classify the gallstone samples. Spectral studies using the LIBS and EDX techniques revealed the presence of trace and toxic elements in the center part of gallstones in higher amounts than that from surface parts. The EDX study also revealed that the elemental distribution is quite heterogenous, and their distribution is random. The EDX method revealed that the center (core) part of the stone samples contained the presence of numerous heavy and toxic elements such as arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), and nickel (Ni).