{"title":"Describing Epidemiologic Data","authors":"R. Fontaine","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780190933692.003.0006","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780190933692.003.0006","url":null,"abstract":"Descriptive epidemiology is a systematic organization of reliable data to sharpen understanding of health problems. It addresses the five questions of what (the health condition), how much (counts, rates, and averages), when (time), where (place), and among whom (person). The field epidemiologist organizes these data into tables, graphs, maps, charts, and other displays to reveal patterns of a health problem by these five questions.","PeriodicalId":371391,"journal":{"name":"The CDC Field Epidemiology Manual","volume":"241 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-01-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"116145493","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Defining Field Epidemiology","authors":"R. Goodman, J. Buehler, J. Mott","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780190933692.003.0001","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780190933692.003.0001","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter defines field epidemiology as investigations initiated in response to urgent public health problems. The key characteristics of field epidemiology remain unchanged over time in that a timely response is required to an unexpected problem, and public health epidemiologists must work rapidly in the field to gather enough evidence needed to guide a timely intervention to prevent illness or death. This chapter also discusses how the tried and true methods of field epidemiology must be adapted to the modern context of changing public expectations, the large amounts of new data and technologies that epidemiologists must be able to understand, expanding communications systems that can support or hinder an ongoing investigations, and a growing need to maintain close coordination with many domestic and international partners.","PeriodicalId":371391,"journal":{"name":"The CDC Field Epidemiology Manual","volume":"2 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-01-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"125409027","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Natural and Human-Made Disasters","authors":"R. Waldman","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780190933692.003.0022","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780190933692.003.0022","url":null,"abstract":"Epidemiologic evidence is a critical element of humanitarian assistance. The identification of appropriate interventions for priority health problems depends heavily on the rapid collection, analysis, and interpretation of data derived from sound methods adapted to challenging circumstances. In the relative chaos of the emergency setting, accurate determination of both numerators and denominators can depend on the ability to be observant, innovative, and flexible. In addition to possessing technical skills, the humanitarian epidemiologist needs to be a strong advocate for the importance of data, an excellent communicator, and a team player. At all times, the epidemiologist should remember that every action taken is not about producing more and better data, but rather about saving imperiled lives.","PeriodicalId":371391,"journal":{"name":"The CDC Field Epidemiology Manual","volume":"6 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-01-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"116877043","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Exposures and Conditions of Acute Environmental Origin","authors":"S. Watkins, Jerry Fagliano","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780190933692.003.0020","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780190933692.003.0020","url":null,"abstract":"Investigations of acute events with suspected environmental associations include unique decision points and action steps. Public health professionals should prepare to respond to these investigations by maintaining expertise in fields including toxicology, environmental epidemiology, environmental and occupational medicine, industrial hygiene, environmental risk assessment, and environmental monitoring. Notification of a disease cluster or of an acute exposure event is often the initial trigger for public health awareness of the situation. Setting case definitions and characterizing exposure can be challenging, and input might be needed from subject matter experts, responders, and partners outside of public health. Quantifying the magnitude and route of exposure, understanding the inherent toxicity and duration of exposure, and other factors are unique steps in environmental investigations. Effective risk communication to affected communities and involved partners is critical and should be carefully planned.","PeriodicalId":371391,"journal":{"name":"The CDC Field Epidemiology Manual","volume":"56 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-01-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"122766386","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Using Technologies for Data Collection and Management","authors":"Janet J. Hamilton, R. Hopkins","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780190933692.003.0005","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190933692.003.0005","url":null,"abstract":"Quality data collected and summarized at the right time lead to informed decisions, which lead to improved interventions and better health outcomes. Acute disease, condition, or injury field investigators must consider not only what data need to be collected (see also Chapter 4), but how data should be collected, managed, and shared, which is the focus of this chapter. Today’s technologies—computers, software applications, ubiquitous mobile devices, social media, personal health monitoring devices, environmental monitors and sensors, electronic health records, and public health surveillance systems—play an integral role in effective field responses. Initial identification of optimal technologic tools results in more efficient and effective field responses. Like the overall response, technology’s role must be tailored to the affected population, setting, health jurisdiction, and the duration, size, and type of the response event. The role technology plays in support of how data are collected, managed, and shared is a dynamic and evolving aspect of the field response. Outbreak responses are shifting from a traditional concept of stand-alone deployment teams, with data collected and managed on-site, to a new normal in which field response data collection is integrated and incorporates existing infrastructure, jurisdictional surveillance, and informatics staff; it uses or builds on existing surveillance systems, tools, and other technologies. Selected technologies should facilitate more time for epidemiologists to focus on epidemiologic functions and for laboratorians to perform testing. This chapter presents principal considerations for selecting and using technologies to support field investigations and examples of how they have been applied.","PeriodicalId":371391,"journal":{"name":"The CDC Field Epidemiology Manual","volume":"32 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-01-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"128207806","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Geographic Information System Data","authors":"S. Foster, E. Adams, I. Dunn, A. Dent","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780190933692.003.0017","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780190933692.003.0017","url":null,"abstract":"Place is one of the basic tenets of a field investigation. Both the who and the when of infection are relative to and often dependent on the where. Geographic information science, systems, software (collectively known as GIS), and methods are among the tools epidemiologists use in defining and evaluating the where. This chapter reviews GIS applications as they pertain to the 10 steps of a field investigation. This chapter offers recommendations about the types of geographic data, equipment, and software necessary for GIS and provides considerations for visualization and spatial analysis. An overview is included of sample data sets that might prove useful for estimating and defining the population in a particular study area (e.g., population data from the US Census) as are recommendations for geospatial methods for estimating sociodemographic characteristics and disease rates by using these data within GIS. This chapter should provide field epidemiologists with a greater spatial awareness that will help guide the design, collection, analysis, and dissemination of findings from a field investigation.","PeriodicalId":371391,"journal":{"name":"The CDC Field Epidemiology Manual","volume":"13 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-01-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"131503580","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Collecting and Analyzing Qualitative Data","authors":"B. Wolff, F. Mahoney, A. Lohiniva, Melissa Corkum","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780190933692.003.0010","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780190933692.003.0010","url":null,"abstract":"Qualitative research provides an adaptable, open-ended, rigorous method to explore local perceptions of an issue. Qualitative approaches are effective at revealing the subjective logic motivating behavior. They are particularly appropriate for research questions that are exploratory in nature or involve issues of meaning rather than magnitude or frequency. Key advantages of qualitative approaches include speed, flexibility and high internal validity resulting from emphasis on rapport building and ability to probe beneath the surface of initial responses. Given the time-intensive nature of qualitative analysis, samples tend to be small and purposively selected to assure every interview counts. Qualitative studies can be done independently or embedded in mixed-method designs. Qualitative data analysis depends on rigorous reading and rereading texts ideally with more than one analyst to confirm interpretations. Computer software is useful for analyzing large data sets but manual coding is often sufficient for rapid assessments in field settings..","PeriodicalId":371391,"journal":{"name":"The CDC Field Epidemiology Manual","volume":"1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-01-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"126951521","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Optimizing Epidemiology–Laboratory Collaborations","authors":"M. Keckler, R. Salerno, M. Shaw","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780190933692.003.0009","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190933692.003.0009","url":null,"abstract":"Whether a field investigation involves a suspected or known infectious disease outbreak or a potential exposure to a toxic chemical or radionuclide, its success often depends on contributions from relevant laboratories; thus, strong collaborations between epidemiologists and laboratory scientists are critical. Outbreak investigators should contact scientists in relevant laboratories as soon as possible, preferably before deployment to the investigation site because early consultations with laboratory experts is often essential to study design. Many local laboratories can perform the more common tests needed, especially those for common infectious agents, whereas laboratories at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention can provide backup support or more specialized services when appropriate. Strong collaborations between field epidemiologists and laboratory scientists can enhance the performance of future outbreak investigation teams.","PeriodicalId":371391,"journal":{"name":"The CDC Field Epidemiology Manual","volume":"18 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-01-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"121501595","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Designing and Conducting Analytic Studies in the Field","authors":"Brendan R. Jackson, P. Griffin","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780190933692.003.0007","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780190933692.003.0007","url":null,"abstract":"Analytic studies enable the field epidemiologist to test his or her hypotheses about the source of an outbreak or other health problem. This testing is performed by comparing ill persons’ exposures to those of a comparison group, typically using one of three study types. Cohort studies are used in field investigations when the population affected is well defined and not so large as to preclude collecting data on almost all persons. Case–control studies are commonly used in field investigations because they enable investigators to test multiple hypotheses relatively quickly and inexpensively. Case–case studies, in which the comparison group comprises other patients with the same or similar illness who do not meet the case definition also can be used to rapidly test hypotheses. Although field investigations may be conducted under intense scrutiny and time pressure, be sure to take time to develop hypotheses and carefully design any study.","PeriodicalId":371391,"journal":{"name":"The CDC Field Epidemiology Manual","volume":"87 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-01-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"116731505","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
L. Thomas, Beverley French, C. Sutton, Denise Forshaw, M. Leathley, C. Burton, B. Roe, F. Cheater, J. Booth, E. McColl, B. Carter, Andrew Walker, K. Brittain, G. Whiteley, H. Rodgers, James Barrett, C. Watkins, carer involvement groups
{"title":"Developing Interventions","authors":"L. Thomas, Beverley French, C. Sutton, Denise Forshaw, M. Leathley, C. Burton, B. Roe, F. Cheater, J. Booth, E. McColl, B. Carter, Andrew Walker, K. Brittain, G. Whiteley, H. Rodgers, James Barrett, C. Watkins, carer involvement groups","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780190933692.003.0011","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190933692.003.0011","url":null,"abstract":"\u0000 Interventions are control and prevention measures that public health officials select and implement at one or more points in time after initiating a field investigation in response to an acute public health problem. Regardless of the nature of the problem, an immediate need exists to understand what is happening and to recommend and implement control and prevention measures that are scientifically justified and acceptable to the community. Public health officials must recommend these actions often without incontrovertible epidemiologic proof of a causal association between the putative source or cause of the problem and occurrence of exposure and disease or injury. Under such circumstances, the key question for the field epidemiologist and decision-makers is: “How much epidemiologic certainty is required before initiating action?” This chapter discusses the decision-making process regarding interventions during the course of epidemiologic field investigations and concludes with a summary of actions relating to interventions that should be considered at each progressive stage of the field investigation.","PeriodicalId":371391,"journal":{"name":"The CDC Field Epidemiology Manual","volume":"33 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2015-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"133552346","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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