Is foreign language anxiety malleable? A systematic review of longitudinal observation studies

Abstract

Background

Foreign language anxiety (FLA) has long been a focus in language learning research, with increasing attention paid to how it changes over time. Recognising FLA as a dynamic construct, this review examines how FLA change has been empirically examined, focusing on temporal frameworks, methodological approaches, and evidence of malleability.

Methods

Longitudinal observation studies published in English since 1986 were included if they used a within-person design with at least two measurement points. A systematic search was conducted of the ERIC, British Education Index, PsycINFO, Scopus, and Web of Science databases. Study quality and risk of bias were assessed using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT). The findings were narratively synthesised according to temporal design (macro-, meso-, micro-timescales), data collection tools, and analytic approaches.

Results

Forty-nine studies met the inclusion criteria. Macro-level designs primarily used self-report questionnaires at extended intervals to capture broad developmental trends. Meso- and micro-level studies employed denser sampling, including repeated ratings, idiodynamic procedures, and physiological measures, to reveal short-term fluctuations. Few studies used multi-timescale designs, but the findings reflected both gradual and momentary changes, indicating that FLA can vary across temporal frameworks. While most studies met at least three MMAT criteria, the observed changes in FLA did not differ systematically by study quality.

Discussion

The findings confirm the dynamic nature of FLA. Its variability across timeframes underscores the need for future research to employ multi-timescale and mixed-methods designs to more effectively capture the complexity of FLA development.