A Possible Nocebo Effect in Children Following the Flint Water Crisis: Evidence From Schoolteacher Perceptions and Neuropsychological Evaluations

Abstract

Objective Special education enrollment increased in Flint following the 2014–2015 Flint Water Crisis, but lead exposure is not plausibly responsible. Labeling Flint children as lead poisoned and/or brain damaged may have contributed to rising special education needs (ie, nocebo effect). To better document this possibility, we surveyed schoolteachers and reviewed neuropsychological assessments of children for indications of negative labeling. Methods A survey of Flint and Detroit (control) public schoolteachers using a modified Illness Perception Questionnaire was conducted 5 years post-crisis. We also examined neuropsychological assessments from a recently settled class lawsuit. Results Relative to Detroit (n = 24), Flint teachers (n = 11) believed that a higher proportion of their students had harmful lead exposure (91.8% Flint vs 46% Detroit; P = 0.00034), were lead poisoned (51.3% vs 24.3%; P = 0.018), or brain damaged (28.8% vs 12.9%; P = 0.1), even though blood lead of Flint children was always less than half of that of Detroit children. Neuropsychological assessments diagnosed lead poisoning and/or brain damage from water lead exposure in all tested children (n = 8), even though none had evidence of elevated blood lead and a majority had prior learning disability diagnoses. Conclusion Teachers’ responses and neuropsychological assessments suggest Flint children were harmed by a nocebo effect.